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Reprinted from Bulletin No. 147, pp. 109-191, U. S. Bureau of Labor 
Statistics, Washington, D. C. 



A STUDY OF OCCUPATIONS 

IN THE 

CLOAK, SUIT, AND SKIRT INDUSTRY 
OF GREATER NEW YORK 

AND 

AN APPRENTICESHIP PLAN FOR 
CUTTERS 



BY 

WILLIAM THOMAS BAWDEN 

A. B., Denison University, 1896 
B. S., Columbia University 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIRE- 
MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



NEW YORK CITY 
1914 



lEx HtbrtB 



SEYMOUR DURST 




When you leave, please leave this hook 

Because it has heen said 
"Everything comes t' him who waits 

Except a loaned hook." 



Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library 
Gift of Seymour B. Durst Old York Library 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2014 



http://archive.org/details/studyofoccupatioOObawd 



Reprinted from Bulletin No. 147, pp. 109-191, U. S. Bureau of Labor 
Statistics, Washington, D. C. 



A STUDY OF OCCUPATIONS 

IN THE 

CLOAK, SUIT, AND SKIRT INDUSTRY 
OF GREATER NEW YORK 

AND 

AN APPRENTICESHIP PLAN FOR 
CUTTERS 



BY 

WILLIAM THOMAS BAWDEN 

A. B., Denison University, 1896 
B. S., Columbia University 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIRE- 
MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



NEW YORK CITY 
1914 



V\5> 



PART II.— OCCUPATIONS IN THE CLOAK, SUIT, AND 
SKIRT INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY, WITH PLANS 
FOR APPRENTICESHIP FOR CUTTERS AND THE EDU- 
CATION OF WORKERS IN THE INDUSTRY. 1 

BY WILLIAM T. BAWDEN. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The traditional necessities of the human being are food, clothing, and 
shelter, but for civilized man each of these has been developed into an 
elaborate formula. There is even a tendency to apply the term neces- 
sity progressively to other items formerly classified as conveniences or 
luxuries. 

To provide clothing for the human race requires now a minimum of 
attention on the part of each individual and the entire time and 
energy of many thousands. The making of hats and caps for men and 
boys, millinery, boots and shoes, hosiery, gloves — each of these is an 
immense industry in itself, and some of these are subdivided. In the 
making of garments, strictly speaking, the following distinct indus- 
tries are now to be found, each with its own methods of production, 
kinds of raw material, factory organization, and labor problems : 

Men's and boys' clothing. 
Custom tailoring. 

Raincoats and waterproof clothing. 
Cloaks, suits, and skirts. 
Ladies' tailoring. 

1 The apprenticeship plan for cutters here given is the result of a request by the board of arbitration 
made to Mr. Chas. H. Winslow while carrying out the investigation of wages and regularity of employ- 
ment, etc., that an attempt be made to work out an apprenticeship plan for cutters acceptable to both 
employers and employees. Conferences for the working out of the plan were thereupon held, consisting 
of representatives of employers and employees, and Dr. Walter E. Weyl representing the board of arbi- 
tration, Mr. Chas. H. Winslow of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the author of this description of the 
plans for apprenticeship for cutters and the education of workers in the industry. The plan here described 
is the result of those conferences. 

The plan for education of workers in the industry was worked out following the tentative acceptance 
by both employers and employees of the apprenticeship plan for cutters upon a further request from the 
employers' association and the unions. 

109 



110 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Dresses and waists. 
Wrappers and kimonos. 
Children's and misses' garments. 
Woolen underwear. 
Corsets. 

White goods: Muslin underwear and lingerie. 
The following report deals with occupations in the cloak, suit, and 
skirt industry of Greater New York. It admits of presentation as a 
study logically complete in itself, but it is also to be considered as an 
integral part of a much larger investigation conducted by the board of 
arbitration during the winter of 19 13-1 4. 1 

. It will be found that this report is characterized by certain omissions 
and limitations. This is due partly to conditions under which the 
work was done and partly to the policy by which it was guided. It 
was believed to be more profitable to undertake a limited piece of 
work and to attempt to do it thoroughly than to spread a superficial 
inquiry over a wider area. 

The objects of study in the following pages are: The kinds of proc- 
esses engaged in by the workers in this industry and the qualifications 
necessary for success in the same; provision made by the industry, as 
now organized, for the promotion of the individual from the less skilled 
and lower-paid occupations to those of higher grade; the possibility of 
so organizing the industry as to make this provision more successful^ 
and economically, through apprenticeship, industrial- education, or 
otherwise; racial and personal characteristics of the individuals em- 
ployed. Consideration of wages is only incidental, in view of the 
attention given to this subject in another part of the general investi- 
gation. No attention is here given to the physical conditions in the 
factories, because of the adequate provision made for dealing with this 
problem by the joint board of sanitary control. 

The methods employed in prosecuting this inquiry are perhaps of 
equal interest with the results, hence the description includes sufficient 
reference to details to enable others to check up the results and also to 
make other investigations whose results might be comparable. 

If this study contributes something to the understanding of condi- 
tions in the industry and to the improvement of those conditions 
through the adoption and perfection of measures for the adequate 
training of the worker, it will have served its double purpose. 

1 The general inquiry into conditions in the industry was under the immediate supervision of one of the 
members of the board, Dr. Walter E. Weyl, who placed its direction in the hands of Mr. Charles H. Winslow, 
special agent of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. To the writer of this report was assigned the 
problem of analyzing and describing the occupations in the industry and assisting in the development 
of plans for apprenticeship. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. Ill 

DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS. 

In order to prepare a description of the kinds of processes carried 
on, numerous visits were made to factories and extended conferences 
were held with employers and with expert workers in all divisions. 
The various groups of occupations were written up and the written 
accounts gone over carefully, paragraph by paragraph, by both 
employers and employees in many different factories. The state- 
ments as here presented, therefore, have received the critical exami- 
nation and final approval of numerous individuals who know the 
industry from extensive inside acquaintance. At the same time they 
represent the personal observations of an outsider. 

The first point that impresses the investigator as he examines the 
factory methods in this industry is that subdivision of labor has not 
been carried to anything approaching the extremes that characterize 
many other lines of work. The occupations are much more specialized 
even in other branches of garment making, as in men's clothing, or in 
dresses and waists. The number of individuals engaged in monoto- 
nous and repetitive processes is very small, if not negligible. 

The occupations are conveniently divided into four groups, those 
connected with: 

1. Planning and designing the garment and making the pattern. 

2. Cutting the cloth from the pattern. 

3. The actual construction of the garment. 

4. Pressing. 

DESIGNERS. 

The first person involved in the process of manufacturing a cloak, 
suit, or skirt, is the designer. At the beginning of the season the 
first thing that is done is to settle upon a standard or foundation 
garment (also called body garment) for each of the various distinct 
styles or fines that it is proposed to make. This standard garment 
is one made on plain simple lines, and in some cases holds over from 
season to season with no substantial changes. The principal qualifi- 
cation is that it shall fit and hang properly. The standard garment 
is to the work of the designer what the fondant is to the work of 
the candy maker, who from one common base is able to produce a 
great variety of confections. The accompanying diagram shows the 
draft of a pattern for a plain standard jacket (light lines), and the 
pattern for a style derived from it (heavy lines) . The shaded portions 
represent the parts of the vest. 

From the pattern for the standard garment the designer has the 
sample maker make a model, using for this purpose pressing cloth. 
This material gets its name from the use made of it by the presser (who 
is described later), who places a piece of it between the hot iron and 
the garment on which he is working during the process of pressing. 



112 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Pressing cloth is a light weight of unbleached linen duck. Aside 
from the uses mentioned, it is sometimes used in making pockets 
in trousers in cheap grades of men's clothing. 

The designer places the model made of pressing cloth on a dummy 
form and uses it as a basis from which to derive a new style. With a 
piece of black crayon he indicates on the goods the various changes 
that will produce the new garment that he has in mind. By changing 
the location of seams, size and shape of lapel, style and position of 
pocket or cuff, amount of cutaway, or length, a new garment is 
created. The pressing-cloth model is then taken apart and cut on 

DRAFT OF PATTERN FOR PLAIN STANDARD JACKET. 




the new lines as indicated by the black-crayon marks. The separate 
pieces are then pressed out, and laid in position on a large sheet of 
paper. After making the necessary allowances for seams the exact 
shape of each piece that is to enter into the garment is traced on the 
paper. The paper is then cut on the lines as drawn, and the several 
pieces of paper resulting constitute the pattern for the proposed 
new garment. The original pattern is always made in size 36. 

A sample cutter cuts out the material for a model or trial garment, 
again using the pressing cloth, without lining or interlining, and the 
sample maker puts it together. This model is examined very care- 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 113 

fully by the designer to determine whether it fulfills the requirements 
in every respect. If necessary, it is ripped apart, alterations are 
made, and it is fitted on a dummy figure, until finally it is accepted 
as satisfactory. If alterations are made in the model the corre- 
sponding alterations are made in the pattern. 

The pattern is then sent to the cutting department, where a cutter 
(who is described later) cuts out the material for a sample garment, 
including the cloth, lining, and interlining. This bundle of material, 
together with the necessary trimmings and buttons, is then sent to 
the sample maker, a skilled tailor who, working under the immediate 
direction of the designer, makes a sample garment. 

The different parts of the garment are basted together by hand, 
and the partly finished garment is placed on a dummy figure, or a 
living model, according to the importance of the work or the grade 
of the output, and carefully examined at the different stages in the 
process of making. Because of the care with which the work must 
be done, and the necessary interruptions for trial and fitting, the 
sample maker takes very much longer in the making of this first 
garment than is required by the worker in the factory under the 
usual methods of production. The sample maker may spend two 
or three weeks on a garment that the piece tailor can make in one day- 
For this reason, principally, the sample maker is always employed 
on a week-wage basis. 

In addition to assisting the designer in developing new ideas and 
styles by trying on, as indicated, models are also used in the show- 
rooms in the display of garments for the inspection of buyers. 

It is to be understood that from a single satisfactory standard 
pattern, as described, the designer usually develops a number of 
variant styles. This is accomplished by designing for use with a 
suitable body pattern two or more forms of sleeve, collar, lapel, 
pocket, etc., and also by different uses and combinations of trimmings. 

Qualifications of the Designer. — The designer must have an 
understanding of the work of all branches of the business and himself 
be a skilled mechanic, as otherwise he could not hope for success in 
designing garments that jean be manufactured practically and eco- 
nomically. Almost all of the designers in the United States, it is said , 
began work as boys and learned their trade as tailors and cutters in 
Europe. They have come from Germany, Kussia, Austria, France, 
and Italy, and in many cases have served regular apprenticeships. 
Designers range in age from 25 to 45 years. 

The designer must make a thorough study of the requirements 
of the trade served by his house, as it would be disastrous to produce 
a line of goods either too elaborate and high priced or of too low 
grade. 

49169°— Bull. 147—15 8 



114 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

The house usually purchases the material and puts up to the 
designer the problem of turning out garments that will sell. The 
designer is constantly on the lookout for new ideas. Those employed 
by the best houses regularly visit Paris and other European cities 
in search of the novel and the attractive. Styles which have been 
created by high-class custom tailors for exclusive patrons are fre- 
quently drawn upon for new ideas by designers who are able to 
reproduce from memory, with substantial accuracy, details from 
costumes seen in the market, in the hotel lobbies, theaters, cafes, and 
elsewhere. 

A high degree of skill is sometimes shown by the designer in 
planning garments that can be cut out of the goods with a minimum 
waste of material. When garments are to be made in large quan- 
tities, and when low cost of production per unit is the important 
consideration, rather than style, it is necessary that the garments 
be capable of being put together by the tailor, or the operator at the 
machine, with a minimum of trouble. This means a lower manu- 
facturing cost because of the lower piece rate for labor. The one 
thing that all manufacturers and designers strive for, however, is 
that elusive quality called " style." Without this quality a gar- 
ment may not bring $10 in the market; with it, another garment, 
costing no more for material and labor, may bring $30 to $50. 

Wages. — The earning capacity of designers varies greatly, of 
course, as does their individual ability. The wages paid vary from 
$25 per week, or even less, for a beginner who is willing to work and 
wishes to gain experience under favorable conditions, to $8,000 or 
$10,000 per year in a few exceptional cases. Models earn from $15 
to $25 per week. 

CUTTERS. 

Grading the Patterns. — The foreman cutter, or head cutter, takes 
the pattern which has been made by the designer, and gives it to 
the grader, who grades it to the sizes required by the orders which 
are to be filled. This means the making of a set of paper patterns 
by reducing and increasing, proportionately, the dimensions of the 
original pattern in order to produce patterns for the sizes smaller 
and larger than size 36, respectively. To do this work of grading 
skillfully requires considerable knowledge of drafting as well as of 
the work of the cutter. 

Direction Card and Cutting Ticket. — The head cutter also makes 
out the direction card, on which are enumerated all the component 
parts of the garment. From orders received the office makes up a 
cutting ticket for each lot of garments to be made, and sends it to the 
head cutter. The cutting ticket specifies style, sizes, and quanti- 
ties of garments to be made. Facsimiles of this card and ticket 
follow. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 115 



Trimmings and Combinations. — As soon as a sample is made, 
and as a part of the process of making up the estimate, a trimming 
girl prepares a list of buttons, hooks, ornaments, etc., that are used. 
A calculation slip, facsimile of which is here presented, is prepared 
for use in figuring the manufacturing cost of a garment. The trim- 
mings are distinguished from the combinations as including items 

SAMPLE OF DIRECTION CARD, SHOWING COMPONENT PARTS OF 

GARMENT. 

CLOTH CARD. 

Style No. 2 s38 _ 

Cutters must Compare their Tickets with Material and Patterns 
by the Direction Card. 

Shade Width 36 inch ..„ Est. *5g- y*fo.. 

Skirt: Front of skirt 2o63 . 

. 2- piece. Back 25 J 6 . 

. ei# 

r . Jacket: 2- piece. Front 2 cuts ) 21 iCf 

P>a.ck gore. / . 

1st part of Rack IllCjX. . 

2. Collars bias 2 / / J 

1 S/eeves 2oo7 

Yoke. ±hl 

2 Bias pieces 6 * /S 



TRIMMING CARD. 

Style Ho^-2S3£l 

LINING. 
ShadeNo Width Est. 



Foundation Front Facing 

Canva s, Co /far cloth p altera 

& strips S ea/n b inding in ^/a ckeir 

4> strips " xS/firt 



that are furnished to the operator or tailor ready made. Combina- 
tions is a term used to cover all kinds of cloth different from that which 
constitutes the main part of the garment (excepting linings and 
canvas), as well as trimmings, ribbons, laces, etc., that require the 
cutting out of material from patterns. Trimming girls earn from 
$4 to $15 per week. 



116 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Verifying Specifications. -The first work of the cutter is to 
take the direction card, cutting ticket, and piece goods supplied by 
the stock boy, and verify the number of yards of cloth required as 
specified on the direction card. This is done by laying out on the 
goods the pattern for size 36. The narrowest piece of goods is selected 
for this test in order to avoid any difficulty caused by variation 
in width, which may be due to unequal shrinkage or to lack of uni- 
formity in the run of the mill. Stock boys earn from $5 to $15 

SAMPLE OF CUTTING TICKET, SHOWING STYLE, SIZES, AND QUAN- 
TITIES OF GARMENTS TO BE MADE. 



Date Feb /f 


Style No. 


Order No- 
/270 


Date Cut f & fr 21 
Cutter /S 




SHADE 


SHADE 


SHADE 


SHADE 


SHADS 


SHADE 


8HADE 


SHADE 


BEXABZJ 


SIZES 


643 


644 


64S 


646 


67o 








— 


14 






1 















16 


/ 


1 


1 


1 












18 


/ 


1 


1 


1 


1 










30 




















32 




















34 


/ 




1 


1 


1 










36 




1 


/ 


Z 












38 


/ 




1 


1 


1 










40 




1 
















42 


/ 


















44 




1 
















46 




































! 





per week. This work frequently leads to a position as cloth buyer, 
in charge of the cloth department, paying sometimes as much as $40 
to $50 per week. 

If the specifications are correct, the work of marking and cutting 
proceeds. Suits are usually marked out and cut one size at a time; 
but if there is plenty of table room available, two or more sizes may 
bo marked out at the same time. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 117 

Marker, Laying Up. The pattern is marked out on the cloth 
with chalk and a piece of goods of the required length is cut off. 
This piece of goods with the pattern drawn on it is called the marker. 
The cutter then lays up the cloth to a number of thicknesses of this 
length, places the marker on top, and cuts all at ^one time. On 
special orders or garments the cloth is frequently, if not generally, 
cut one thickness at a time. When garments are made in quantities, 

SAMPLE OF CALCULATION SLIP FOR FIGURING MANUFACTURING 
COST OF GARMENT. 

Number Ap? Z 
Shade 6A6 



YDS 


MATERIAL 


PRICE 


TOTAL 


_ *r 


Cloth ..... 


/ 


/o 


SI st-^ 

"TO 


4* 


Silk 




qo 
o o 


/ try * 
/'Oy 

- -O O 


/6 




J 


— i 


Velvet 

















Farm Satin 

Foundation 




'2 








2 


Canvas - -. 




/3 






Lining — 








3 ' 


Button Holes 




02. 


.o€> 










3 


Buttons Large^'* 


/... 


44 


f oS 




Braid « 




























./. 






/S 


. /S 
























" Narrow — 










Ribbon Wide 










Narrow 










Fur 










Cutiing & Pressing 
Sundries 


/ 


So 
2S 








.2& 




Making .... 


s 


2£ 


s. zs 













and the work is done up to the capacity of the tools used, from 15 to 
40 or more thicknesses of cloth may be cut at one time — depending 
on the weight and quality of the goods. 

Trimmer. — After the cloth cutter has finished his work the cutting 
ticket is turned over to the trimmer who cuts out the linings and 
combinations. 



118 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

Canvas Cutter.— While this is being done the ( anvas cutter is 
cutting out the canvas or buckram (or other material used for inter- 
lining), which is used for the stiffening in the collar, front, cuffs, etc. 
This work is the least skilled of the cutting and it is here that the 
beginner usually gets his start. 

Assorter. — When the garments are cut out in sizes they arc sent 
to the assorter, who assembles the pieces according to the system 
used in the house. In some cases the assembling is done by single 
garments, in others by lots. The bundles are then ready for the 
foreman tailor. The assorting is usually done by girls, and the 
wages paid range from $10 to $15 per week, depending upon the skill 
and speed of the individual. It is important that the assorting be 
done accurately in order not to get the different garments, sizes, and 
styles mixed in the bundles. 

With reference to the work of the cutters, it may be said further 
that a good trimmer is usually a good cloth cutter, and vice versa, so 
that these classes of employees are interchangeable when the require- 
ments of the work make it desirable. In some of the large houses, 
also, there is more subdivision of labor among the cutters than would 
be inferred from the foregoing description. The work of cloth cut- 
ting, for example, is sometimes divided so that one man does the 
"laying up" of the goods, another the "marking," while others do 
the cutting. 

Special Order Cutters. — The foreman cutter, when he does not 
give his entire time to supervising the work of the cutting shop, some- 
times cuts out special orders, though some houses have special order 
cutters to take care of this work. A reproduction of a special order 
slip is given herewith. 

The cutters are in a sense the aristocracy of the industry, earning 
higher wages per week than other week workers and possessing 
generally greater intelligence and skill. This particular division of 
the industry has been Americanized to a greater extent than any 
other. Only among the cutters are there to be found any consider- 
able number of American-born English-speaking workmen. 

Tools. — The tools used in the actual work of cutting are: Shears, 
which may be used when 2 to 4 thicknesses of cloth are to be cut at 
one time; the short knife, for cutting from 3 to 4 thicknesses up to 
8 or 10; the long knife, for cutting more than 8 or 10 thicknesses; 
and the electric machine cutter. 

The machine cutter is used where the volume of work and quality 
of material are such as to warrant it. The machines cut any number 
of thicknesses of cloth up to their capacity, from a pile 1^ to 3 inches 
thick for those driving rotary knives up to 8 or 9 inches for the 
larger sizes of machines with oscillating knives. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 119 



Ownership of Tools. — With the exception of the machine cutters, 
the shears and knives used are the property of the worker and must 
be kept in repair and sharpened by him. The advantage of the 



SPECIAL ORDER SLIP. 



Date Feb /<? 


Cutter /4- Order /z&$ 


STYLE ^ P <=> ?* . 


SHADE 6 4-6 






JACKET MEASURE 



SKirt Measure 



3- 3 Around Neck 

•8-9 Across Chest 

10-11 Across Bust 

1- 1 Around Bust s?<5 

2- 2 Around Waist 

4- 4 Around Hips 

5- 6 Length of Waist in front 

18-20 Back of Neck to Center Bust 

18-6 " "" " " Front of Waist.. 

18-10 " " " " Arm Pit 

18-2 ' '• Waist at side 

10-12 Inside Sleeve 17 



10-2 Side Under Arm 

7-3 Length of Shoulder 

10-10 Armhole 

13 Arm Muscle 

14 Around arm below Elbow 

15 " wrist 

16- 17 Across back 

18-19 Length of Waist in back... 

17- 21 Shoulder to Elbow 

21-22 Elbow to Wrist 

Total length front from Neck . . 

back " S2,, 



A to A— Around Waist24* 
B. to B— " Hips 6 inches 

below Waist 

J. to J-Around Hips 9 inches ... 

below Waist 

C to D Length Front. 37 

) " Left SidJZfr 
E to F \ t 
J " Right 3/# 

G to H- " Back 38 



Remarks 



Wh itc peace de. cygn .e- //k 



machine cutter is in its rapidity of operation, but a skilled cutter 
can also do much better and cleaner work with it than can be done 
by hand. 



120 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

Standard Day's Work. — The cutting out by hand of eight suits, 
each consisting of coat and skirt, one size at a time, one thickness at 
a time, is regarded by expert cutters as a standard day's work. The 
number of suits actually cut out in a day can be greatly increased by 
cutting several thicknesses at one time, due allowance being made 
for the time required for laying up the cloth. 

Scale of Wages. — The minimum weekly wages paid to cutters 



are as follows: 

Head cutters $30 

Graders 25 

Machine cutters 25 

Regular cutters, on cloth 25 

Lining cutters (trimmers) 25 

Canvas cutters 12 

Skirt cutters 21 



Apprenticeship. — The cutters have for some time been urging 
the reestablishment of an apprenticeship system, in accordance with 
which a beginner would serve a definite minimum period and receive 
definite training and instruction in the technic of the trade and 
ultimately attain a status as skilled mechanic that, under present 
conditions, is practically beyond the reach of the ordinary worker. 
The industry is greatly in need of a higher level of skill and efficiency 
among cutters as a class. The result of an effort to assist in the or- 
ganization of a plan to meet this need is to be found in another part 
of this study. 1 

The chief source of supply of cutters for the past 10 or 15 years 
has been through such training as the shops have been able to 
give. A man would get employment in the cutting room as a helper 
or as a canvas cutter and receive sufficient instruction to enable 
him to handle the simpler processes. After acquiring a little skill 
and confidence (more frequently, and in larger degree, the latter), he 
would improve his situation both as to remuneration and kind of 
work by applying for work in a new shop, representing that he is 
capable of doing such and such kinds of work and asking to be taken 
on trial. Even if his efforts do not meet with complete and unquali- 
fied success, so that he is perhaps discharged at the end of the week 
for which he is hired, he can go to the next shop with this additional 
experience and with the claim that he has been employed on this 
kind of work. During the busy season, especially, when there is a 
strong demand for workers, and individual records are not carefully 
scrutinized, the facilities for moving about from shop to shop and 
gradually improving in skill and remuneration are fairly abundant. 
An unorganized system of this character is, however, manifestly 
inefficient and uneconomical in the extreme, and conserves the inter- 
ests of neither the worker nor the manufacturer. 



i See page 172. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 121 
TAILORS, LINERS, FINISHERS, OPERATORS, ETC. 

Practically all of the workers who are engaged in the processes of 
constructing the garment, as distinguished from designing, cutting, 
and pressing (and excepting the sample maker, whose work has been 
described), are employed on a piece-rate wage basis. They constitute 
approximately 80 per cent of the workers in the cloak, suit, and skirt 
industry as at present organized. 

The desire to confine this study to the lowest possible limits con- 
sistent with adequate treatment of the specific problems selected pre- 
vents an excursion at this point into the very interesting history of 
the struggle connected with the development of week-wage and piece- 
rate wage systems. For references that throw further light on this 
question the reader is referred to authorities cited by Webb and 
Stowell. 1 

Shop Chairman. — Before proceeding to a discussion of the occu- 
pations in this division of the industry, it may be said that the piece- 
workers in each shop have a simple form of organization for the purpose 
of dealing collectively, rather than individually, with the employer. 
This organization provides for a shop chairman and a price committee. 
The shop chairman is elected at a regular meeting of the shop force. 
There is no designated term of office, and reelection during satisfac- 
tory service is the usual thing. The workers in each shop may hold 
a meeting at any time at the call of the chairman for the considera- 
tion of matters of interest, or at the call of the business agent of the 
union to receive communications or instructions. These meetings 
are held in the evenings in halls rented for the purpose by the unions, 
and assigned in accordance with a booking arrangement which is 
under the direction of the complaint clerk in each district. 

One of the important functions of the shop chairman is to take 
charge of the bundles of cloth which are to be made up into garments, 
as they come from the cutting room, and distribute the work to the 
employees. This prerogative has been taken over by representa- 
tives of the workers in this manner, by mutual understanding with 
the employers, in order to minimize the possibility of unfair discrimi- 
nation among the workers, which formerly constituted a prolific 
source of discontent. 

In a shop, for example, a quantity of garments are to be made; 
for some of these the tailor is to receive $10 for the labor of making, 
for others $7.50, and for others $5. It may be understood, even by 
the novice (though it is not easily explained) , that the tailor can earn 
money faster by working on the $10 garments than on those at $5. 



1 Webb: History of Trade Unionism; also Seasonal Trades; Longmans, New York. 
Stowell: Studies in Trade Unionism in the Custom Tailoring Trade; published by Journeymen Tailors' 
Union of America, Bloomington, 111. 



122 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

Consequently if, in the distribution of the work, one tailor gets only 
$10 garments to make, and another only $5 garments, dissatisfaction 
is bound to arise. On the other hand, the tailors in a shop are not 
all of equal skill, so that a mere arithmetical distribution of all grades 
of garments will not satisfy the manufacturer, who insists that the 
higher grades of work shall go only to mechanics who are able to do 
the work properly. 

The manufacturer, therefore, reserves the right to refuse payment 
for garments that do not meet the test of inspection for quality of 
workmanship; and in this way his interests are taken care of. The 
interests of the workers are provided for by this method of super- 
vising the distribution of the bundles of work through their own rep- 
resentative. If for any reason they are dissatisfied with the way in 
which this task is performed, the remedy lies in their own hands — 
the election of a new chairman. 

For the service thus rendered, the shop chairman is, in many 
instances, remunerated by a small weekly assessment levied upon 
all the pieceworkers in the shop. 

Price Committee. — The shop organization includes also a price 
committee, of which the shop chairman is a member. Whenever the 
manufacture of a new style is begun, a sample garment is made as 
already described, the price committee meets with a representative 
of the firm, and a piece price for the labor is agreed upon. The price 
thus settled holds for the season. The committee usually consists 
of three persons, but in large shops there may be five or more 
members. 

The psychology of the conference on prices offers an interesting 
problem for further study. The manufacturer always names a price 
lower than he is willing to pay, and the price committee names a 
figure higher than it hopes to receive, and the final compromise is 
reached by a process of haggling, and even browbeating, that to an 
outsider is somewhat puzzling. Why it should always be so is not 
easy to explain, but no matter how closely similar this garment may 
be to one made last season for $9, the price asked now is $13, and 
there is only one way apparently of reaching a settlement. 

Systems of Tailoring. — Coming now to a description of the occu- 
pations, there are two distinct methods of conducting the shops in 
which the tailoring work is done. By the first method, the garments 
are made by piece tailors, assisted by liners ; by the second, the gar- 
ments are made by finishers and operators, assisted by liners. 

The question as to whether a given garment shall be made by the 
first plan or the second is not decided by a choice as between two 
plans equally appropriate, nor by the preference of the manufacturer 
for one type of shop organization as compared with the other. The 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 123 



method of making is determined by the character of the garment 
itself, and the distinction between those that must be made by the 
first method and those that can be made by the second is not easy 
of explanation. The difference is partly a matter of quality or 
grade of garment, the higher grades requiring the skilled tailor even 
on the machine work, and partly a matter of elaborateness of style 
and construction. A garment whose construction requires hand 
skill beyond a certain rather indefinable point must be made by a 
tailor; a garment requiring less skill may be made by a finisher 
and an operator; in each case a liner usually assists, as indicated 
hereafter. 

Tailors and Liners. — In this system the bundles of cloth are 
distributed to the tailors, who are held responsible for the quality of 
the work turned out and who perform all the work of making the 
completed garment except the pressing. The work of inserting the 
lining and felling the edges, however, requires considerably less skill 
than the other processes, so that it is almost a universal practice in 
this industry for tailors to employ liners to assist them in this part of 
the work. This arrangement is a form of subcontracting, in that the 
liners are employed by the tailors and not by the firm. 

Much of the fining is done by women, whose quickness and deft- 
ness enable them to line a garment in perhaps half the time that 
would be required by the tailor. Many of the liners also are super- 
annuated tailors and men who are not skilled enough to secure 
employment as tailors. 

A capable woman will put the linings into 10 garments in a day, 
whereas the tailor may be able to complete only 2; consequently 
several tailors are required in order to supply one liner with work. 
Since no single tailor can provide the liner with enough work to 
insure a living wage, and since the manufacturer assumes no respon- 
sibility in the matter, the position of the liner in the system is always 
a precarious one. 

Wages. — Since the work is paid for at piece rates, the wages of the 
tailor vary with his skill, as well as with the seasonal fluctuations of 
the industry and the amount and character of the work offered him 
to do. With the tailor, as with the cutter and the manufacturer 
himself, the question of the duplication of garments affects economy 
of production. The manufacturer makes more money if he sells in 
large lots; the labor of cutting 6 or 8 garments at once is practi- 
cally the same as in cutting one, and the tailor can turn out work 
faster and earn more money, other things being equal, by making 
10 garments of one style than he can by making 2 of one style, 3 
of another, and 5 of another. 



124 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

Tailors, liners, and finishers usually belong to the same unions. 
The average weekly earnings of skilled tailors during the busy season 
are reported at $30 to $40. 

Finishers, Operators, and Liners. — In this s} r stem the bundles 
of cloth go first to the finishers, who baste the different parts of the 
garment together. The different pieces of cloth are first basted on 
to a foundation of canvas or some kind of interlining and then the 
parts are basted together so that the seams can be run. Operators 
then sew the seams on power-driven sewing machines, after which 
the garments are returned to the finishers. The operator is held 
responsible for the machine work on the garment, and the finisher 
for the handwork. 

Finishers are usually assisted by liners, as is the case with the 
tailors in the first system, and in many shops there is a still further 
subdivision of labor in the employment of an unskilled group of 
workers, usually girls, who pull out basting threads, attach hooks 
and eyes, sew on buttons, rosettes, and other ready-made ornaments 
or trimmings. 

For the reason that has been suggested in a previous paragraph, the 
finisher ordinarily possesses less mechanical skill than the piece 
tailor, but more than the finer. The operating of the sewing machine 
is not regarded as requiring a high degree of skill, though the demand 
varies with the grade of the product and the shop. It is asserted that 
an ordinarily intelligent adult can, in three months, master the proc- 
esses sufficiently to enable him to earn a living wage as an operator 
at the prevailing piece rates, whereas most of the tailors now at work 
in the industry began to learn the trade as young boys in the Euro- 
pean countries from which they have come. 

Importance of the Operator. — In respect to these methods of 
manufacture the industry has undergone certain radical changes 
during the past 10 to 20 years. Formerly the operator was the most 
important factor in the production of the garment. It was customary 
for a firm to employ operators only, who in turn hired finishers to 
assist them, responsible only to themselves. Gradually, however, 
the work of the operator has become relatively less skilled and less 
important and that of the finisher more so, until at the present time 
the operator is probably entitled to credit for not more than one- 
fourth to one-half of the effort and skill that go into the production 
of the garment after it leaves the cutter's hands. 

There is another class of skilled work that is done by the foreman 
or the assistant foreman, which includes the locating of belts, laps, 
vests, false pockets, etc. These parts are attached to the garment in 
their proper places by pins. The finishers then sew them on and 
remove the pins. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 125 



Buttonhole Maker. — The foreman also indicates on each gar- 
ment the location of the buttonholes by means of chalk marks, and 
the work is done on a machine by a buttonhole maker, who comes in 
from the outside for this special purpose. The buttonhole maker 
usually owns a machine in each of several shops and makes the 
rounds from one to the other cleaning up the work that has accu- 
mulated for him at each place. Several hundred buttonholes can be 
made in the course of a few hours. This work is paid for at an 
agreed price per hundred. 

Elaborate or fancy buttonholes that can not be made by machine 
are made by hand by girls who are paid an agreed price per piece. 

Busheler. — The busheler, or bushelman, in the high-grade shops 
is an expert tailor, usually the assistant foreman, whose work it is to 
examine the garments after the final pressing to see that the work- 
manship is up to the standard and to see that nothing has been 
overlooked. If the garment passes this inspection it is sent to the 
stock room or to the shipping room. There are shops, however, in 
which the busheler is not a skilled tailor, but is assigned to an inferior 
grade of work. The busheler, or inspector, on high-grade work 
usually has the assistance of a model for trying on garments before 
final approval. 

Draper Girl. — A dress is a garment consisting of waist and skirt 
fastened together, as distinguished from a suit, which consists of two 
pieces, a coat or jacket, and a skirt. In the manufacture of a dress 
it is necessary to fasten the waist and skirt together in such a way as 
to secure the proper fit and hang of the completed garment in order 
that the operator may sew the seams correctly. This work is done 
by draper girls, who hang the parts of the garment on a dummy 
figure and fasten them together with pins. These girls are also called 
pinners and joiners. They earn from $12 to $18 per week, according 
to their experience and ability and the grade of the output. Very 
little instruction is necessary in order to make a beginning at pinning 
the simpler garments, and progress to more difficult and better-paid 
v/ork is largely a matter of experience and individual aptitude. 

Cleaner. — After the finisher or tailor has completed his work on 
a garment it goes to a cleaner, who picks off the loose threads, etc., 
before the garment is sent to the upper presser for the final pressing. 
The girls who do this work earn from $6 to $9 per week. 

Factory Ticket. — Each garment has a conspicuous label or fac- 
tory ticket attached to it, containing a separate coupon for operator, 
finisher, and sometimes presser. Each employee who performs any 
w^ork upon the garment enters his number in the appropriate blank 
space in order that any defect or damage may be traced and also in 
order that proper credit may be given for work turned out. Only 



126 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



one operator, one pressor, and one finisher perform any work upon a 
single garment. In some shops a factory ticket without coupons is 
used. Following are given samples of these labels or tickets. 

SAMPLES OF LABELS OR FACTORY TICKETS, WITH AND WITHOUT 

COUPONS. 



Tailor Made 

Spec. No. < No. • 32.0.5.0 



Style .... 
Cloth • • . 
Size •••• 
Operator. 
Finisher. • 

Ship 

Index • • • 



No Work will bo (Mid for until Checked tod 





Finisher 


N....32050... 








Style 
















Cloth 





No Woik will be paid for until Chocked and 





Operator 


no 32050 






Style 












Cloth 



SKIRTS 




No Work will be paid for until Checked and Examined 



"Matching 
No. 



3202 



Order 
No. 



Size 



Style 
No. 



/7/4- 



38 



CO 

i.Cohein O 

< 



REMARKS: 

Operator 2.<J 
Finisher 4-o 



Matching 


3202 


No. 


Order 




No. 


Size 


33 


Style 


c 


No. 


BooZ \ 



Cutter 



Shapiro ^ 
— (/) 



REMARKS • 

Operator 27 
Finisher 6 



Skirt Basters and Finishers. — Tailors, operators, and finishers 
are divided into two distinct classes, those who work on jackets or 
coats, and those who work on skirts. The two kinds of work are 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 127 

quite different in respect to the amount of skill required and, of course, 
the number of garments produced in a given time. The work of the 
skirt baster and skirt finisher is of lower grade, requires less skill, is 
lower paid, and is further differentiated from that of the other em- 
ployees mentioned by being put upon a week basis. Most of the 
tailors and operators are men, while about 50 per cent of the finishers, 
as well as skirt basters and skirt finishers, are women and girls. 

Sample Makers. — Sample makers are men chosen from among 
the more skillful tailors, who work under the immediate direction of 
the designer making one original sample garment from each pattern 
created. This work is done at week wages while it lasts, after which 
the men return to the status of tailors, at piecework. 

Sample Liner. — The sample liner is a finisher who assists the 
sample maker by inserting the linings in the garments upon which 
he works. Lining is a distinct division of the work, and, as has been 
pointed out, can be performed by cheaper labor in a great many cases. 
There are some shops, however, making a high-grade product, where 
the lining is regarded as of equal importance with the other processes, 
and in such shops the sample maker is not permitted to turn this 
work over to an inferior workman. 

Wages. — Tailors and operators earn from $30 to $40 per week 
during the busy season, while finishers earn about $20 per week. 
During the time that the tailor works as a sample maker he is paid 
from $22 to $30 per week. Skirt basters, on the week basis, are 
paid $14 per week, and skirt finishers, $10. 

Equipment. — According to Paragraph VIII of the contract shop 
agreement which is in force in a number of establishments, "The 
firm is to furnish to all employees, free of charge, sewing machines 
driven by electric power, which are to be in charge of competent 
machinists, and all requisites for work, such as needles, cotton, silk, 
oil, straps, etc." 

PRESSERS. 

Piece Pressers. — As soon as the operator or tailor begins his 
work of putting together the various parts of a garment, the assistance 
of a presser is required to press out the seams as the work progresses, 
and also to press out various parts of the garment as they are com- 
pleted, such as sleeves, pockets, collars, cuffs, belts, etc. This is the 
work of the part presser, or piece presser, who is the least skilled of 
all the pressers. 

Under Presser. — The work is then returned to the operator after 
pressing. After the garment has been put together by the operator 
it goes to the under presser, who presses out the seams, etc., before 
the lining is inserted. This pressing is, of course, done principally 
on the inside, or the underside, of the garment. In shops where 



128 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



piece pressers are not employed the garment goes from the operator 
to the under presser and back again a second time before the com- 
pletion of the tailoring work. 

Upper Presser. — The final pressing of the finished garment is 
done by the upper presser, or up presser, and requires more skill than 
any of the preceding pressings. In shops where the cheaper grades 
of clothing are manufactured the pressing is depended upon to 
produce a considerable proportion of the shaping or molding of the 
garments. 

Classification and Scale. — Pressers are further divided into 
classes according to the garments upon which they work. There are 
upper pressers and under pressers for skirts, upper pressers and under 
pressers for jackets, for reefers — that is, children's clothing — and for 
dresses — that "is, one-piece suits. There are but a very few houses in 
this industry making dresses, however; these are made principally 
by houses in the dress and waist industry. 

The following is a list of the classes into which pressers are divided, 
and the minimum weekly wages paid : 



Head pressers $21 

Jacket upper pressers 21 

Jacket under pressers 18 

Skirt upper pressers 19 

Skirt under pressers 15 

Dress upper pressers New. 

Dress under pressers New. 

Reefer upper pressers 18 

Reefer under pressers 14 

Piece pressers 13 



Distribution. — Estimates by union officials and employers place 
the proportions of the various classes of pressers employed in the 
industry as follows: 

Per cent. 



Jacket and reefer upper pressers 42 

Jacket and reefer under pressers 25 

Skirt upper pressers 10 

Skirt under pressers 20 

Part pressers 3 



100 

Apprenticeship. — There is no apprenticeship system in this 
division of the industry, though employment as a part presser serves 
this purpose to a degree. There is practically no control exercised 
over the conditions under which an applicant may engage in the 
occupation. 

Men usually begin as piece pressers, where the least skill is required. 
Many individuals have made a start in the small places where cleaning 
and pressing work is done. After equipping himself with whatever 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 129 



degree of skill is obtainable at this kind of work, the man applies to 
some new shop for employment as an under presser at a time when 
the demand for workers is good. In a similar maimer he later works 
in as an upper presser. 

Qualifications for Union Membership. — There is no general 
rule about the length of service necessary for a presser to secure the 
higher grades of work and pay. In general, promotion from one 
grade to another jn the same shop is difficult to secure. When a 
presser feels that he has the requisite skill and experience he applies 
at a new shop for work at the higher scale. From one to two years 
is usually required in order to reach the status of an upper presser. 
If a man can secure employment at the regular scale for any grade 
he is accepted by the unions for membership. 

Examination. — Aside from this method of qualifying for member- 
ship the unions provide an examination in which they require the 
candidate to demonstrate his ability to do the work before admitting 
him to membership. One union, Local No. 35, which maintains a 
system of sick benefits, requires also that the candidates pass suc- 
cessfully the medical examination given by the joint board of sanitary 
control. 

Comparison of Pressers. — The larger number of jacket pressers 
required in the industry, as compared with skirt pressers, is explained 
partly by the fact that in the manufacture of a suit the pressing of the 
j acket usually t akes more time than the pressing of the skirt. Roughly 
speaking, it may be said that, with workers of equal skill, two skirts 
can be pressed in the time required for one jacket. The length of 
time varies considerably with the shop and the character of the 
output. 

In the shops of the high-class manufacturers it is not easy for the 
worker to learn new processes, and thus to progress from a lower grade 
of work to a higher. On the other hand, there are some shops in 
which upper pressers are employed to do the under pressing at the 
same scale of wages as the upper pressing, in order to secure the 
better quality of workmanship. 

Equipment. — The necessary equipment is furnished by the em- 
ployer, and consists of irons, cloths, sponges, and a variety of ironing 
boards and pads. These latter include the principal pressing board, 
or buck; the shoulder pad, and breast pad, which are placed on the 
buck to assist in the pressing of these parts of the garment; the sleeve 
pillow, which is inserted in the sleeve during the pressing; and the 
flattener, a block of wood. 

The irons are heated by a combination of gas and compressed air, 
and in a few shops by electricity. 

49169°— Bull.- 147—15 9 



130 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRESSERS AND CUTTERS. 

The most promising point at which to make a more intensive 
study of occupations in this industry seemed to be a comparison 
between pressers and cutters, for the following reasons: 

1. Pressers and cutters are the two largest groups of workers who 
are paid on a week-wage basis instead of a piecework basis. Having 
this characteristic in common, and being by it differentiated roughly 
from the remaining mass of workers, they constitute convenient 
units for investigation. 

2. Estimates based on the membership records of the unions 
place the number of pressers and cutters at 8,000 to 10,000 in each 
occupation, out of a total of 50,000 to 60,000 for the cloak, suit, 
and skirt industry in Greater New York. It is evident, therefore, 
that these two groups taken together constitute a very important 
fraction of the total number of workers. 

3. The preliminary and more superficial investigation was suffi- 
cient to disclose certain distinguishing characteristics which of 
themselves invite more careful study. Among these may be men- 
tioned the difference between the two groups of workers in the 
degree to which they have yielded to influences that may be described 
as ■ ' Americanizing. ' ' 

4. The prehminary investigation seemed to indicate, further, that 
in one of these occupations would be found the most favorable oppor- 
tunity for beginning such an analysis as might lead to the formu- 
lation of plans for securing greater efficiency, and hence greater 
earning capacity, for the workers through appropriate industrial 
education or apprenticeship plans. In the case of the cutters, in- 
deed, some consideration had been given to the possibility of reviving 
in a modified form the apprenticeship system that had been in opera- 
tion in the trade in former years. While it is true that an apprentice- 
ship system to meet present needs must be radically different from 
one that might have served the purpose twenty or more years ago, 
still, in a sense, it is a question of restoring an institution that has 
fallen into decay quite as much as it is of organizing new machinery 
to deal with new conditions. 

5. Finally, a very important reason for selecting these two occu- 
pations for further intensive study is found in the fact that the 
pressers and cutters, more than any other groups in the industry, 
have taken the initiative in intelligent and aggressive study of their 
own economic and industrial status. The interest of the cutters in a 
revival or reorganization of an eifective apprenticeship scheme has 
been already referred to. The pressers, especially those of Local 
No. 35, have inaugurated a comprehensive system of individual card 
records that in the course of a few years will yield invaluable data 
for the study of the occupation. The records now being compiled 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 131 

include details as to actual weekly and annual earnings under the 
conditions of seasonal fluctuations, earning capacity, conditions 
relating to the health and efficiency of the individual worker, etc. 
The pressers are cooperating with the director of the joint board of 
sanitary control, in a careful analysis and study of diseases, and 
especially occupational diseases, among their own membership, and 
are attempting to develop methods of increasing individual efficiency 
through the raising of standards of living, schemes of social insurance, 
and the like. Local No. 35 is unique, apparently, among the unions 
in having established a tuberculosis benefit fund for members, which 
it is using as an argument for demanding physical examination of 
candidates for membership. 1 

It may be appropriate to note in this connection that the joint 
board of sanitary control is establishing an industrial clinic for the 
purpose of f acilitating a more intensive study of occupational diseases 
and hygiene in this industry than has been possible hitherto. By 
means of a number of instruments which are now being perfected it 
is proposed to conduct examinations in the shops, including tests 
of blood pressure, rate of respiration, circulation, and other tests, 
before work, during working hours, and after the day's work is 
ended. The advantages, to the individual and to society, of such 
industrial studies as these can hardly be overestimated. 

MOBILITY OF THE WORKERS. 2 

The first attempt to make an intensive study of cutters and pressers 
concerned itself with the problem of the mobility of the workers. 
The primary object of the general investigation in the industry was 
to ascertain the facts as to the earnings of workers who are paid on a 
week-wage basis, as distinguished from those paid on a piece-rate 
wage basis. Examination of factory pay rolls disclosed the names 
of large numbers of workers who were employed only a portion of the 
time in any single factory. In order to secure complete individual 
histories, therefore, it was necessary to piece together the periods of 
employment in the different factories concerned. 

The attempt to secure the necessary data on which to base this 
study did not meet with the success anticipated, but the results are 
presented here for what they are worth. When the investigator 
visited a factory for the purpose of taking the information from the 
pay rolls, he supplied the shop chairman with a quantity of schedules 
with the request that he secure from each week worker, in addition 
to the necessary identification data, a list of all the shops in which he 
had done any work during the year under consideration, August 1, 
1912, to August 1, 1913. 



1 Third Annual Report, Joint Board of Sanitary Control, in the Cloak, Suit, and Skirt, and Dress and 
Waist Industries of Greater New York, December, 1913; 31 Union Square West, New York, N. Y. 

2 In the prosecution of this inquiry the writer was assisted by Mr. Boris Emmette. 



132 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

The obstacles encountered in the carrying out of this plan, which 
need not be detailed here, and the pressure of other work, led to its 
abandonment after several weeks of effort. Schedules were secured 
for 1,429 males and 86 females. 

Table A.— NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALE WORKERS EMPLOYED IN EACH SPECI- 
FIED NUMBER OF SHOPS DURING THE YEAR AUGUST 1, 1912, TO JULY 31, 1913, 
BY OCCUPATIONS. 



Males who worked in each specified number of shops during the year. 



Number of shops 
in which employed 
during year. 


All occupations. 


Pressers. 


Tailors. 


Cutters. 


Finishers. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


1 


976 
269 
104 
45 
22 
7 
1 
3 
2 


68.30 
18.82 
7. 28 
3. 15 
1. 54 
.49 
.07 
.21 
.14 


565 
157 
38 
13 
2 


72.90 
20. 26 
4.90 
1. 68 
.26 


141 

29 
19 
3 


72.31 
14.87 
9. 74 
1.54 


246 
82 
47 
29 
20 
5 


56.68 
18.89 
10.83 
6. 68 
4.61 


24 
1 


96.00 
4.00 


2.. 


3 


4.... 












6 


2 
1 


1.03 
.51 






7 












8 






3 
2 


.69 
.46 






9 














Total 












1,429 


100.00 


775 


100.00 


195 


100.00 j 43 \ 


100.00 


25 


100.00 





Table A shows the distribution of males according to the number 
of shops worked in during the year, from which it appears that 976, 
or 68.30 per cent, were employed in one shop only. It is believed 
that if all the facts were available the percentage of those working 
in one shop only would probably be somewhat diminished, since the 
absence of an entry in the appropriate place on the schedule may 
mean either that there was nothing to report or that there was unwill- 
ingness or inability to give the information. The item on the sched- 
ule was a request for the " names of all other shops in which you have 
worked since August 1, 1912." 

Disregarding the small number of finishers, the cutters seem to be 
at a disadvantage in the amount of migration experienced as com- 
pared with pressers and tailors, for only 56.68 per cent of the cutters 
worked in one shop only, as against 72.90 per cent of presseis and 
72.31 per cent of tailors. Considering those who were forced to find 
work in three or more shops during the year, the differences are even 
greater. The figures are: Cutters, 106 out of 434, or 24.42 per cent; 
tailors, 25 out of 195, or 12.82 per cent; pressers, 53 out of 775, or 
6.84 per cent. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 133 



Table B.-NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FEMALE WORKERS EMPLOYED IN EACH 
SPECIFIED NUMBER OF SHOPS DURING THE YEAR AUGUST 1, 1912, TO JULY 1, 1913, 
BY OCCUPATIONS. 



Females who worked in each specified number of shops during the year. 



Number of shops 
in which employed 
during year. 


All occupations. 


Skirt finishers. 


B asters. 


Cleaners. 


Examiners. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Ter 
cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
.cent. 


1... 

2 


64 
21 
1 


74. 42 
24.42 
1. 16 


50 
18 
1 


72. 46 
26.09 
1. 45 


11 

3 


78. 57 
21. 43 


2 


100 


1 


100 


3 










Total 














80 


100.00 


69 


100.00 


14 


100.00 


2 


100 


1 


100 



Table B shows the corresponding figures for the female workers 
studied. The facts presented hardly justify comparisons among 
the occupations represented in Table B, but the comparison between 
males and females, Table A and Table B, seems to be of some signifi- 
cance. The male workers move about from shop to shop much more 
than the female workers. 

The unsatisfactory nature of the data collected by the plan just 
referred to led to an effort to secure in a number of individual cases 
more complete records. For this purpose a selection was made of 
34 cutters and 34 pressers, and a further study undertaken through 
personal interviews. 

The individuals to be studied were selected at random from several 
thousand schedules collected in the course of the wage inquiry. For 
convenience only schedules bearing names that were easily traceable 
were chosen. Some of the workers were induced to visit the office of 
the board of arbitration, and the remainder were interviewed at 
union headquarters. 

The inquiry was continued until 34 cutters and 34 presseis were 
found who could give complete records for the 52 weeks. In no case 
was such a record secured without much patient checking and com- 
paring. A great deal of difficulty was experienced in recalling names 
of employers, and periods and dates of employment, even though 
there was apparent willingness to furnish the desired information. 
In many cases the workers did not know the meanings of the English 
names for the calendar months, and were able to recall experiences 
only by connecting them with the month in which some holiday 
occurred, or some religious festival or other notable event. 

One of the best records, for example, was that of a presser who 
produced a record in writing of all his earnings. He gave the names 
and addresses of the people for whom he had woiked during the year. 
Subsequently the records of these firms were secured and comparisons 
made. The dates were found to be badly mixed up, and considerable 
effort was required to straighten them out. 



134 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Table C— MOBILITY OF 34 CUTTERS AND 34 PRESSERS DURING ONE YEAR. 



iNiinincr oi snops. 


Number 
of cutters. 


Number 

OI 

pressors. 


Number of shops. 


Number 
of cutters. 


Number 
of 

pressers. 


i 


5 
4 
5 
4 
4 
5 
2 


12 
11 
4 


8.. i 


1 
1 




2 


9 




3 


10 


1 

5 


4 


No report 


3 


5.-.- 


1 


Total 


6 


34 


34 














Table C shows a marked difference in the amount of moving about 
from shop to shop, in favor of the pressers. Twenty- three pressers 
worked in only one or two shops during the year, as compared with 9 
cutters. But that this tells only a part of the story is evident from a 
comparison of the amount of unemployment. 

Of the 5 cutters who worked in one shop only, for example, 2 
reported 22 weeks each of idleness, and 1 was idle for 6 weeks. 
Of the 12 pressers who worked in one shop only, 1 reported 36 
weeks of idleness, 2 reported 27 weeks each, and 3 reported 1, 3, and 
22 weeks, respectively. 



Table D.— UNEMPLOYMENT REPORTED BY 34 CUTTERS AND 34 PRESSERS. 





Number 


Number 




Number 


Number 


Number of weeks. 


of 


of 


Number of weeks. 


of 


of 




cutters. 


pressers. 




cutters. 


pressers. 


lto4.... 


2 
1 
1 
6 
6 
5 
4 


2 
1 
2 
3 
7 
3 
3 


29 to 32 


4 




5 to 8 


33 to 36 


9 to 12 


37 to 4 ) 





2 
4 


13 to 16... 


No report ... 


5 


17 to 2 ) „ 


Total 


21 to 24 


34 


34 


25 to 28 





From Table D it appears that for cutters the periods of idleness 
range in length from 1 to 32 weeks, one-half of the cases falling in the 
groups from 13 to 24 weeks. For pressers the periods range in 
length from 1 to 40 weeks, more than half of the cases (20) falling 
in the groups from 17 to 32 weeks. From this point of view a con- 
siderable part of the apparent advantage in mobility in favor of the 
pressers disappears. 



Table E.— NUMBER OF PERIODS *OF UNEMPLOYMENT REPORTED BY 34 CUTTERS 

AND 34 PRESSERS. 



Number of periods. 


Number 

of 
cutters. 


Number 
of 

pressers. 


Number of periods. 


Number 
of 

cutters. 


Number 
of 

pressers. 


1 


5 
4 


6 
9 

11 


6 




1 

7 


2 


No report 


5 


3 


1(3 
3 
1 


Total 


4 


34 


34 













OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 135 



A comparison between cutters and pressers in the number of 
periods of unemployment reported, Table E, shows little difference 
between the occupations. 

USE MADE OF PERIODS OF UNEMPLOYMENT. 

Most of the cutters, according to their statements, spent the 
periods of unemployment in idleness. One reported that he "was 
helping out his father' 7 ; one was employed at clerical work; three 
worked on raincoats; one worked on shirtwaists ; three obtained work 
as salesmen in retail stores; and one was employed as a traveling 
salesman. 

Two pressers reported having endeavored to earn a living at "ped- 
dling" while out of employment in this industry; one worked at "odd 
jobs"; two worked for contractors at irregular intervals; one found 
employment at pressing at piecework; one worked in a store. The 
rest reported having spent the time in idleness. Two of these, when 
asked how they managed to live, said that their wives took in 
washing. 

The fact that 24 cutters and 27 pressers (out of 34 individuals in 
each group) reported inability to find employment when thrown out 
of their positions in this industry seems to be the most striking con- 
tribution of this study. It is impossible to say whether organized 
and cooperative effort would provide employment in other industries 
for any considerable number of the surplus workers of this industry 
during the dull seasons. But so far as this hasty and superficial 
glance at the situation shows anything, it is that under existing con- 
ditions there is very little of this transfer of activities. 

Without question the inquiry described in the preceding pages 
should be carried further. If undertaken with more time and more 
ample facilities than were available when this work was attempted, 
and on a scale sufficiently large to justify the drawing of conclusions 
from the findings, such a study would be most fruitful of results. 

METHOD USED IN THIS STUDY. 

It was decided to make a selection of 100 pressers and 100 cutters, 
and to secure from each individual certain significant facts concern- 
ing his history. For convenience in recording and handling the 
desired data, printed schedules were prepared with blanks to be filled 
in. The following form of schedule was used: 

Ixquiry Blank: Employees. 



1. Name 

2. Home address 



3. Place of birth 



4. Year of birth 



Male Female . 



136 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



5. Single Married 

6. Came to the United States in (year). 

7. Member of what union 

8. Union card No 

9. Present occupation 

10. Employed by 

11. Business address 

12. Record of work done : 

1912 worked as at $ per week. 

1911 worked as at $ per week. 

13. Began to work at years of age as at $ per week, 

in. 

14. Method of learning trade 

(a) Learned from other members of family 

(b) Served apprenticeship, of about years, in 

(c) Learned in trade or technical school, in 

(d) Worked as helper in 

(e) 

15. Amount of schooling: 

(a) Attended public school about years, in 

(b) Attended high school, college, gymnasium, etc., about years, in 

(c) Attended private school about years, in 

(d) Attended evening school about years, in 

16. Languages you can speak 

17. Languages you can read 

18. Languages you can write 

Since it was known in advance that a considerable number of men 
would be found unable to speak English, several assistants were 
chosen having speaking knowledge of Yiddish, Russian, or German. 
These assistants were chosen from the staff of investigators employed 
by the board of arbitration, and were carefully instructed as to the 
purpose of the study and the use of the schedule. Care was taken to 
secure uniform interpretation of the various matters inquired into, 
so far as possible. All of these assistants had had several months' 
experience in other phases of the investigation conducted by the 
board of arbitration, and hence were thoroughly conversant with the 
conditions which it was proposed to study. 

The schedules were taken during the month of January, 1914. By 
previous arrangement in each case, the officials very kindly reserved 
a room, equipped with tables and chairs, at the union headquarters 
for the use of the investigators. Each investigator sat at a table, 
with a chair at his side for the workman to be interviewed. The 
writer of this report was personally assisted by an officer of the union 
who acted as an interpreter when necessary. 

The desired information was secured by individual conferences, 
all of the writing on the schedules being done by the investigators. 
It was thus possible to pursue any given point by question and 
answer until it was reasonably certain, first, that the subject under- 
stood the question, and, second, that the interviewer understood the 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 137 



answer. Individuals were admitted to the room one at a time to 
each investigator, so that the work proceeded expeditiously and 
without interruption. On the other hand, it was possible to take 
as much time for each individual case as was deemed necessary. 

The basis of selection is, of course, a very important matter when 
a study of several thousand men is undertaken through a scrutiny 
of 100 individuals. It is believed that the conditions under which 
this work was done insure a random and fairly representative 
sampling. These conditions may be outlined as follows: 

1. The workers were sought at their union headquarters where 
they are accustomed to congregate. 

2. The days of the week and the hours for the visits were chosen, 
after inquiry, so as to coincide with the expected presence of the 
largest possible numbers. 

3. No attempt at selection from those who presented themselves 
was made. On each occasion the interviewing proceeded until there 
were no more men left, or, on the last day, until the required number 
of schedules had been secured. In each occupation 110 schedules 
were secured, and from these there were selected later the 200 
schedules containing the most complete records, the fewest errors, 
omissions, etc. 

4. Although appointments were made beforehand with the officers 
of the unions, the men themselves were not notified and had no 
knowledge in advance of what was being undertaken. 

5. It might be objected that the individuals interviewed did not 
constitute a representative sampling on the ground that, being found 
at union headquarters during working hours, they probably included 
too large a proportion of those who were out of work because of 
inefficiency, unwillingness to work, or some other characteristic 
that would tend to rate them far below the standard of the whole 
group on certain of the points tested. It is believed that this objec- 
tion is met satisfactorily by pointing out, in addition to what has 
been said above, that the month of January, during which the inquiry 
was made, marks the lower limit of one of the semiannual dull seasons 
characteristic of this industry. It has been estimated that during 
the month in question not more than 10 to 15 per cent of the pressers 
and cutters in the industry were employed. It can be maintained, 
therefore, that the unemployed at that time included representatives 
of all classes and degrees of efficiency, inefficiency, etc., and that it is 
reasonable to assume that groups found in union headquarters would 
be fairly representative of the occupation. This assumption appears 
the more tenable when it is explained that both occupations under 
consideration are practically 100 per cent organized in this industry 
in this city. 



138 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Such comparisons as may be instituted between pressers and 
cutters on the basis of the data presented herein are of course sub- 
ject to qualification on account of the small number studied, and no 
proof is offered to show that a study of all individuals in these occu- 
pations would confirm the conclusions reached. On the other hand, 
it is believed that under the method of selection adopted the data 
obtained are typical and fairly represent conditions among pressers 
and cutters in New York City. 

INDIVIDUAL RECORDS OF PRESSERS. 

The following individual records will serve to indicate the character 
of the data secured and the way in which it was recorded, and will 
give an insight into certain features of the study supplementary to the 
statistical presentation. Entries that would lead to the identification 
of the individual have been eliminated, but otherwise the statements 
are transcribed from the original schedules with no substantial 
changes. 

It should be noted that the conditions under which this investiga- 
tion was made rendered it impracticable to refine the data relating to 
age, number of years in the United States, age at entering the industry, 
and number of years in the industry. No effort was made to ascertain 
the month and day of month of the events referred to. In order to 
secure comparable results in the tabulation, however, the schedules 
were all carefully edited, and the years given as "year of birth," 
''year of arrival in United States," etc., were uniformly subtracted 
from 1913, and the results noted on the schedules. The amount of 
labor in the actual tabulation was thus measurably reduced, as well as 
opportunities for errors, and the work of checking the tables was 
greatly facilitated. 

By this method an unascertained fraction of a year is neglected 
in practically every case, but it is believed that the results secured 
are sufficiently valid and significant to justify the method by the 
enormous saving in time. 

Concerning the thirteenth item on the schedule (p. 136) , it should be 
said that the age at which the individual "began to work" was inter- 
preted to mean the age at which he "entered this industry" as a 
cutter or presser, or as a learner or apprentice in one of these specific 
occupations. In the inquiry concerning the method of learning the 
trade, " apprenticeship" was interpreted somewhat narrowly to mean 
a formal, definitely organized plan of learning and teaching a trade, 
involving a contractual relation with mutual obligations. In this 
sense, as noted elsewhere, there is no apprenticeship system in either 
of these occupations at the present time, but it was expected that a 
few at least of the older men would report apprenticeship as a stage 
in their earlier histories. As may be seen by reference to the tables. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 139 

the great mass of the workers studied learned their trades by picking 
up the requisite skill "in the shop." 

All of the information given was recorded upon the unsupported 
testimony of the individuals interviewed, and is dependent for its 
accuracy upon the efficiency of individual memories, perhaps upon 
individual willingness to give accurate information, and perhaps upon 
other factors. These factors should be taken into consideration in 
weighing the statements concerning schooling, and especially concern- 
ing facility in the use of language. 

It should be explained that during the summer of 1910 the industry 
was completely paralyzed by a strike lasting about two months. After 
the settlement of the strike, in September, practically every indi- 
vidual in the 200 studied was earning more than before the strike. 
In the case of the pressers, wages were raised in October, 1913, when 
the board of arbitration awarded certain increases, but these latter 
increases are not included in the tabulations. 

Presser No. 1. — Born in Russian Poland, in 1877; married ; 3 
children; came to United States in 1910, and entered the industry 
within a year, at the age of 33; in Russia was a bookkeeper; came to 
New York after the strike in 1910, learned the trade by working 
as a helper in a shop where he worked for 6 weeks as a learner without 
wages; at the end of his first year he was earning $18 per week, 
and during the last two years he was making $19; attended gymna- 
sium in Russia about 3 years, also a commercial school on Sun- 
days for 3 years while engaged in business; speaks Yiddish, German, 
Russian, Polish, and "a little" English and French; reads and writes 
the same languages, and also reads Hebrew. 

Presser No. 2. — Born in Russian Poland, in 1883; single; came 
to United States in 1910; 3 years in United States, and 3 years in the 
industry; in Russia was a wood turner for 17 years; worked in 
London, England, for a few weeks learning to press before coming to 
New York; entered the industry at 27 years of age, in London, as 
a piece presser, earning $1 per week; in New York he secured work 
as a piece presser at $13 per week, and before che end of his first year 
was an under presser and piece presser at $16; during his second year 
he made $16, and the third year, $18; attended a Yiddish school in 
Russia for about 5 years; speaks Yiddish, Polish, Russian, German; 
reads and writes Yiddish, Polish, Russian. 

Presser No. 3. — Born in Russia, in 1887; single; came to United 
States in 1907; worked at common labor in Newark, N. J., for several 
weeks, in New York as a painter for several weeks, and as operator of 
a street photographing machine for several months; about one year 
after arrival in the United States, at 21 years of age, entered the 
industry; learned the trade in the shop, beginning as a piece presser; 
worked two weeks for nothing as a learner, then 3 weeks at $3, then a 



140 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



few weeks at $3.50, then a few months at $5, and by the end of his 
first year had worked up to $8 as an upper presser on skirts; in 1910 he 
was making $10, which was increased to $16 after the strike; during 
1911 he was out of work, except about 3 months while he was with a 
circus; during 1912 he worked as a reefer upper presser at $14, and in 
1913 as a jacket under presser at $18; was a railroad porter and clerk 
in Russia; attended a Yiddish private school in Russia for about 6 
years, and evening school in New York for one year studying English ; 
speaks, reads, and writes Russian, Yiddish, and "a little" English. 

Presser No. 4. — Born in Russia, in 1878; married; 2 children; 
worked in an envelope factory in Russia; came to the United States in 
1905 ; in New York worked about 6 months as a waiter and dishwasher 
in a restaurant, and about a year in an iron works; after about 2 years 
in New York, entered the industry at 29 years of age, learning the trade 
in the shop; began as an under presser, working for 5 weeks at $4, 
and then for 2 years at $7; in 1910 he made $9 as under presser, but 
after the strike made $15 as piece presser; since 1911, under presser 
at $18; in Russia attended public school about 3 years, and Yiddish 
private school about 5 years; speaks, reads, and writes Russian, 
Yiddish, Hebrew, and ''a little" English. 

Presser No. 5. — Born in Roumania, in 1861; married; 4 children; 
had a small business of his own in Roumania; came to United States 
in 1902 and entered the industry at once, at 41 years of age; began as 
piece presser, working 2 weeks for nothing, then for 3 months at $3 
per week, then at $7; for 2 years worked at $9; by 1910 was making 
$12 and $13 per week, and since the strike $19 as skirt upper presser; 
learned the trade in the shop from other workers; attended public 
school about 5 years in Roumania; speaks, reads, and writes Rou- 
manian and Yiddish. 

Presser No. 6. — Born in Russia, in 1874; married; 5 children; was 
a shoemaker in Russia; came to United States in 1904, where he was a 
peddler with a pushcart for about a year and a half; after about 2 
years in the United States, at 32 years of age, began as skirt under 
presser, learning the trade in the shop ; worked 2 weeks for $5 per 
week, then several months at $8, then a year at $12, and by 1910 was 
making $16, and by 1912 became a jacket upper presser at $21; 
attended a Yiddish private school in Russia about 6 years; speaks, 
reads, and writes Russian and Yiddish. 

Presser No. 7. — Born in Russia, in 1877; married; 3 children; was 
in business for himself in Russia; came to United States in 1905, 
entering this industry at once, at 28 years of age; learned the trade in 
the shop, beginning as a reefer presser; worked 6 months at $8 per 
week, then at $10, and at end of first year was making $11 ; then made 
$12 until 1910, with the exception of a few months before the strike 
when he was in business for himself as a contractor presser, making 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 141 



$18 to $20 per week; since the strike has been making $21 as jacket 
upper presser; attended Yiddish private school in Russia about 9 
years; speaks, reads, and writes Yiddish. 

Presser No. 8. — Born in Russia, in 1879; married; 3 children; 
kept a small dry-goods store in Russia; came to United States in 1906, 
entering this industry at once, at 27 years of age; learned the trade in 
the shop, beginning as under presser and piece presser; worked 2 
weeks for nothing, then 2 weeks at $3, then 3 months at $5, then at 
$8, and by end of first year was making $10 as under presser; then 
worked at $12 until 1910, and since the strike has made $18 as jacket 
under presser; had about 7 years' schooling in Russia, part of the 
time in public and part in Yiddish school; speaks Russian, Polish, 
and Yiddish, but reads and writes "very little." 

Presser No. 9. — Born in Russia in 1874; married; 7 children; 
worked in leather factory in Russia; came to United States in 1903, 
entering this industry at once at 29 years of age; learned the trade 
in the shop, beginning as skirt under presser; paid $5 for the privi- 
lege of learning and in addition worked two weeks without pay, then 
a few weeks at $3 and a few weeks at $6, up to $11 at end of first 
year; from the end of 1904 to 1910 was a presser on piecework, 
making about $19 average; since the strike in 1910 has been making 
$19 as skirt upper presser and $21 as jacket upper presser; attended 
Yiddish private school in Russia about 8 \ears; speaks and reads 
Yiddish, Hebrew, and Russian; writes Yiddish and Hebrew. 

Presser No. 10. — Born in Russia in 1877; single; learned the 
trade as operator and presser in the Russian army, where he served 
for 3 years; came to United States in 1903, and notwithstanding his 
previous experience paid $10 for the privilege of learning, and in 
addition worked 4 weeks without pay in Baltimore; after that he 
worked for a time at $10 per week, then 2 years at $15, then at $18 
until 1910; since the strike has made $21 as jacket upper presser; 
attended Yiddish private school in Russia about 6 years and even- 
ing school 1 year in Chicago ; speaks, reads, and writes Yiddish and 
Polish. 

Presser No. 11. — Born in Austrian Poland in 1862; married; 9 
children, 6 of whom are married; was in business for himself in 
Poland; came to United States in 1905, entering this industry at 
once, at 43 years of age, learning the trade in the shop as a helper 
and piece presser; earned from $7 to $11 the first year, then worked 
2 years as jacket under presser at $15.50; then was presser in the 
neckwear industry at $20 until 1910; after the strike returned to the 
cloak, suit, and skirt industry as jacket under presser at $18; had 15 
years' private tutoring at home in Poland; speaks, reads, and writes 
Yiddish, German, Polish, Russian, Hebrew, and " a little" English. 



142 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



INDIVIDUAL RECORDS OF CUTTERS. 

Cutter No. 1. — Born in Italy in 1890; single; came to United 
States in 1900 and 6 years later, at 16 years of age, entered the indus- 
try, learning the trade in the shop ; began as a learner, making $5 to $8 
the first year; worked one year as a canvas cutter at $10, then 2 years 
as a cloth cutter at $14 and $16; at the time of the strike in 1910 he 
went into business for himself, manufacturing willow plumes; in 1912 
returned to the industry as a cloth cutter at $25; attended public 
school in Italy about 5 years and in New York about 6 years; speaks, 
reads, and writes Italian and English. 

Cutter No. 2. — Born in Germany in 1873; married; no children; 
came to United States in 1884 and secured work as an errand boy at 
$3 per week; 2 years later, at 13 years of age, entered this industry 
as apprentice canvas cutter, earning $12; a year later he became a 
trimming cutter at $15, and the next year made $18, after which he 
was a cloth cutter for 8 or 9 years at $24 ; then with a partner he kept 
a small hotel for a year, returning to this industry as a cloth cutter at 
$2 ! until 1910; since the strike he has been making $25 as cloth cut- 
ter; attended evening school in New York for about a year and a 
half, studying English and the common branches; speaks, reads, and 
writes English and German. 

Cutter No. 3. — Born in New York, N. Y., in 1893; single; in 1907 
went to work as an errand boy at $4 per week; in 1908 was collector for 
a cotton house at $7, and in 1909 shipping clerk in a cloak house at 87 : 
in 1910, at 17 years of age, he entered this occupation as a learner at 
the cutting table, starting at $4 and working up to $11 in 6 months; at 
the time of the strike hi 1910 he went to Detroit, where he secured a 
job as a mechanic in an automobile factory at $15; inl911he returned 
to New York, making $25 as a cloth cutter since that date; attended 
public school in New York for about 8 years; speaks Yiddish and 
English, and reads and writes English. 

Cutter No. 4. — Born in United States in 1891; single; respon- 
sible for partial support of 3 other members of family; in 1904 went 
to work as a stock clerk at $6, the next year making $8 ; the following 
year was office boy and apprentice draftsman hi an architect's office 
at $10, and then for 2 or 3 years was shipping clerk, stock clerk, and 
factory bookkeeper at $12; after the strike in 1910 he entered this 
industry, at 19 years of age, as a canvas cutter at $12 ; during the past 
2 years has been a cloth cutter at $25 ; learned the trade in the shop, 
beginning as canvas cutter; is a graduate of the public elementary 
school in New York, having attended about 7 years; attended even- 
ing high school, commercial course, in New York for 1 year; speaks 
English, Yiddish, and German; reads and writes English and " a little " 
Yiddish and German. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 143 



Cutter No. 5. — Born in Russia in 1878; married; 3 children; 
came to United States in 1888 and went to work as a newsboy in Troy, 
N. Y.; in 1895 was a pattern boy at $5 per week, and a year later 
canvas boy at $6; a few months later, at 17 years of age, he entered 
this occupation as a learner; learned the trade in the shop, working 
from $6 up to $10 in about 5 years; from 1901 he worked as skirt cut- 
ter for a time at $16, then as cloth cutter up to $24 in 1910; since the 
strike in 1910 he has been cloth cutter at $25; attended public school 
in Troy about 2 years; speaks Yiddish and English: reads and writes 
English. 

Cutter No. 6. — Born in Russia in 1891 ; single; principal support 
of family of 4; helped father in business in Russia; came to United 
States in 1902 and worked in leather trade 4 years; in 1906, at 15 
years of age, entered this industry as canvas cutter; learned the trade 
in the shop, paying $25 for the privilege and in addition working 4 
weeks without pay; after that received $6 per week, and in 2 years 
was making $14 as trimming cutter; since the strike in 1910 has been 
making $20 as trimming cutter; attended Yiddish private school in 
Russia about 6 years, and evening school in New York about 2^ years; 
speaks, reads, and writes Yiddish and English. 

Cutter No. 7. — Born in France in 1882; married; no children; 
came to United States in 1886; hi 1895 began to work in a machine 
shop at $2.50 per week; then employed irregularly as telegraph mes- 
senger boy for 2 or 3 years at $3.50 to $9; then went to sea for a time, 
working as sailor and steward; in 1899, at 17 years of age, entered 
this industry as helper trimming and cloth cutter at $5 to $9 ; by 1910 
he had worked up to $24 as cloth cutter, and since the strike has been 
making $25 ; attended public school in New York about 6 years, also 
1 year evening school; speaks, reads, and writes English, German, 
and French. 

Cutter No. 8. — Born in Italy in 1874: married; 7 children: 
came to United States in 1877; went to work hi 1886 pulling bastings 
at $1.25 to $2 per week; beginning in 18S9 was for several years an 
operator on men's clothing at $3 to $9, and then jacket tailor at $10; 
then for 3 years a contractor in men's clothing line: hi 1900, at 20 
years of age, he entered this occupation, learning the trade by taking 
private lessons from a cutter in the latter's home; made $20 as cutter 
on men's clothing and $22 on cloaks and suits up to 1910; since the 
strike hi 1910 has been making $25 as cloth cutter on cloaks and suits; 
attended public school hi New York about 2 years, also a private Italian 
church school one-half }'ear, and evening elementary school one year 
studying English; speaks English, Italian, Yiddish; reads and writes 
English and Italian. 

Cutter No. 9. — Born hi Russian Poland hi 1866: married; 3 
children; entered this industry at 15 years of age, hi 1881, by serving 



144 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

an apprenticeship in London, England, beginning at 75 cents and 
making $7.50 at the end of 4 years; came to the United States in 1885 
and secured work at once as regular cloth cutter at $18, going up to 
$20 in 5 years; in 1900. was making $23, and in 1905, $24; since 1910 
has been making $25; attended public school in London about 6 
years; speaks, reads, and writes English. 

Cutter No. 10. — Born in Austrian Poland in 1892; single; from 
1905 to 1909 worked as a grocery clerk in Poland for $25 per 
year and board; in 1909 came to United States and entered this 
industry at once, at 17 years of age, learning the trade in the shop as a 
helper trimming cutter; began at $3 and was making $8 in 1910 as 
assistant trimming cutter; since the strike has been making $18 as 
trimming cutter; attended public school about 8 years in Poland, and 
evening school in New York about 4 years; speaks Yiddish, German, 
Russian, Polish, English; reads and writes Yiddish, German, English, 
and Polish. 

Cutter No. 11. — Born in Austria-Hungary, in 1889; married; 
no children; came to United States in 1898; in 1910, at 21 years of 
age, entered this industry as a helper in the shop; worked 2 months 
without pay, and in addition paid $50 for the privilege of learning, 
one-half of which went to the boss and one-half to the foreman cutter, 
after the strike he received $6 to $8 ; the next year worked as canvas 
cutter at $12, the following year on linings and canvas at $15, and in 
1913 as cloth cutter at $20 up to S25; attended public school in Aus- 
tria about 4 years, also in New York about 5 years; speaks, reads, 
and writes English and Yiddish. 

Cutter No. 12. — Born in Russia, in 1890; single; came to the 
United States in 1903, and for 3 years worked in a leather-goods fac- 
tory and at several odd jobs; in 1906, at 16 years of age, began as 
canvas cutter ; worked 6 weeks without pay in order to learn, then 6 
months at $3, then for a time at $7; the next year earned from $10 
up to $14, and the following year as lining cutter from $8 to $10; then 
as cloth and trimming cutter from $9 to $14, and in 1910, $18; since 
the strike has been making $25 as cloth cutter; attended public 
school in Russia about 5 years, also 1 year in New York, and evening 
school in New York 2 years; while out of work has been studying in a 
private preparatory school in New York in order to take the regents' 
examinations; speaks, reads, and writes Russian, Yiddish, German, 
and English. 

Cutter No. 13. — Born in Russia, in 1885; married: 1 child; came 
to the United States in 1906, entering the industry at once as a canvas 
cutter; learned the trade in the shop, supplemented by 8 months' 
instruction in a private designing and cutting school; worked 4 
months at $5, then up to $10; in 1908 was making $12 as cloth cutter 
$15 in 1909, and $22 in 1910 ; since the strike in 1910 has been making 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 145 

$25; attended public school in Russia about 10 years, and evening 
school in New York about 5 years; speaks, reads, and writes Russian, 
Yiddish, and English. 

AGE, COUNTRY OF BIRTH, AND CONJUGAL CONDITION. 

Age. — Table F, which follows, shows that the median age for 100 
pressers studied falls in the group 35 to 39 years, while that for 
cutters falls between 29 and 30, which means an age difference of 7 
or 8 years. The mode (the group containing the largest number) for 
pressers is the 35 to 39 group, while that for the cutters is the 25 to 
29 group. One-fifth of the pressers are 45 years old or over, as 
against one-tenth of the cutters. Only one-twelfth of the pressers 
are under 25 years of age, as against one-fourth of the cutters. About 
one-fourth of the pressers (28) are under 30 years of age, compared 
with one-half of the cutters (50). The accompanying chart (No. 18) 
indicates graphically the preponderance of cutters in the lower age 
groups and of pressers in the higher. 

Country of Birth. — Table F shows that 21 cutters were born in 
the United States, whereas all of the pressers were foreign born. 
Russia is the country of birth for the largest group in each occupa- 
tion — 70 pressers and 46 cutters (58.2 per cent of the 79 foreign-born 
cutters). 

The median age for pressers born in Russia is 35 to 39, practically 
determining the median for the entire 100. The median age for cut- 
ters born in Russia, however, is 25 to 29, 10 years younger than for 
pressers and lower than the median for the 100 cutters, while the 
median age for 21 American-born cutters is 30 to 34, higher than that 
for the entire 100. Chart 19 shows the distribution. 

Table F. — AGE AND COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 





Number in each classified age group. 




Country of birth. 


Under 

18 
years. 


18 to 20 
years. 


21 to 24 
years. 


25 to 29 
years. 


30 to 34 
years. 


35 to 39 
years. 


40 to 44 
years. 


45 to 49 
years. 


50 years 
and 
over. 


Total. 


PF.ESSHRS. 

Russia 






7 


17 


7 


18 




9 


5 


70 










1 


2 


1 


1 


5 


Austria-Hungary 










1 


2 


1 




1 


5 








i 


3 


6 


5 


2 


2 


19 


Roumania 


















1 


1 




















Total 






8 


20 


15 


27 


9 


11 


10 


100 












CUTTERS. 

Russia 




1 


12 


13 


8 


7 


3 


1 


1 


46 


Russian Poland 












1 


1 


Austria-Hungary . . 




1 


3 


1 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


11 








3 


4 


3 


1 


1 




12 


Roumania 








1 








1 


Germany 















2 




2 


4 


France 










1 










1 


Italy 






1 






1 








2 


United States 




2 


2 


6 


3 


2 


. 4 




2 


21 


England 












1 








1 




















Total 




4 


21 


25 


17 


12 


11 




6 


100 













49169°— Bull. 147—15 10 



146 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

CHART 18.— DISTRIBUTION OF 100 PRESSERS AND 100 CUTTERS, BY 

AGE GROUPS. 



PRESSERS and CUTTERS by AGE-GROUPS 
Individuals 

30 ^» = Pressers CUD = Cutters 



25 



eo 



15 



10 



Age 



18 

TO 
20 



21 
TO 
24 



25 
TO 

29 



30 
TO 
34 



35 40 
TO TO 
39 44 



I 



45 
TO 
49 



50 
& 

Up 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 147 
CHART 19. — COUNTRY OF BIRTH OF 100 PRESSERS AND 100 CUTTERS. 



PRE5SERS and CUTTERS 

by COUNTRY of BIRTH 



Individuals 
70 



60 



50 



40 



30 



20 



10 





Country 
of Birth 



i 



1 



- Pressers l I = Cutters 







i 









Russia U.S. 



Austrian 
Poland 



Other 
Countries 



148 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Table G.— CONJUGAL CONDITION AND NUMBER OF CHILDREN, BY AGE GROUPS. 



Age group 
(years). 


Total. 


Num- 
ber 
sin- 
gle. 


Num- 
ber 
mar- 
ried. 


Number having— 


Me- 
dian 
num- 
ber of 
chil- 
dren 


Aver- 
age 
num- 
ber ol 
chil- 
dren. 


No 
chil- 
dren. 


1 

enitu. 


2 

chil- 
dren. 


3 

chil- 
dren. 


4 

chil- 
dren. 


5 

chil- 
dren. 


6 

chil- 
dren. 


7 8 
chil- chil- 
dren, dren. 

L 


9 

chil- 
dren. 


PRESSERS. 

Under 18 
































18 to 20 
































21 to 24 


8 
20 
15 
27 

9 
11 
10 


4 
2 
1 
1 


4 

18 
14 
26 
9 
11 
10 


3 
2 
2 
1 


1 

4 
2 
1 
1 




















0.3 
2.2 
2.3 
3.2 
4.4 
5.9 
5.1 


25 to 29 


4 

3 
5 


5 
4 

10 

3 


3 
3 
5 
1 
2 
3 












2 
2 
3 
4 
6 
4 


30 to 34 












35 to 39 


3 




i 

2 
3 
1 






40 to 44 


2 

3 






45 to 49 








2 
2 


1 
1 




50 and over 








1 


1 


1 


Total 

CUTTERS. 

Under 18 










100 


8 


92 


8 


9 


13 


23 


17 


7 


5 


7 


2 


1 


3 


3.4 






























18 to 20 


21 
25 
17 
12 

it 

4 
6 


15 
10 


























21 to 24 


6 
15 
17 
10 
9 
4 
5 


3 
6 
5 
2 
2 


1 

7 
7 
1 
2 


2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
1 
1 

















.8 
.7 
1.3 
2.6 
1.6 
4.3 
4.0 


25 to 29 
















1 
1 

2 
2 
3 
3 


30 to 34 




1 


1 










35 to 39 


2 
2 


2 
2 
1 
2 


1 








40 to 44 










45 to 49 


1 






1 




50 and over 


1 






1 




1 




Total 














100 


34 


66 


18 


18 


15 


7 


2 


2 


M 2 


1 




1 









Conjugal Condition. — Table G shows that 92 per cent of the 
pressers are married, as against 66 per cent of the cutters; 8 of the 
pressers who are married (8.7 per cent) have no children, as against 
18 cutters (27.3 per cent of the married). The average number of 
children in the families of the pressers who are married is 3.4, with 
the median at 3; for cutters the average is 1.7 and the median 1. 
At each age group also the median number of children per family is 
consistently larger for pressers than for cutters. 

Twenty- two of the 28 pressers under 30 years of age are married 
(78.6 per cent) and average nearly 2 children per family (1.82), while 
only 21 of the 50 cutters under 30 years of age are married (42 per 
cent), with an average of less than 1 child per family (0.76). 

All of the 30 pressers who are 40 years of age or over are married, 
and the average number of children is 5.2; 18 of the 21 cutters (85.7 
per cent) of the corresponding group are married, and the average 
number of children is 2.8; the median number of children is 5 for 
pressers and 2 + for cutters. 

From Table H it appears that while Russia furnishes 70 per cent of 
the pressers, and 69.6 per cent of those married, only 46 per cent of 
the cutters are Russian born, and 48.5 per cent of the married. Of 
the 70 Russian-born pressers 64 are married, 91.4 per cent, while of 
the 46 Russian-born cutters only 32 are married, 69.6 per cent, a con- 
dition which can be accounted for perhaps by the 10 years' difference 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 149 

in age groups, as shown in Table F. Of the 21 American-born cutters, 
however, with a median age slightly higher than that of the entire 
group, only 12 are married — 57.1 per cent, as against 66 per cent for 
the 100. 

The average number of children in the families of the 64 Kussian- 
born pressers is 3.4, and of 18 born in Austrian Poland, 3.1 ; the aver- 
ages for the corresponding groups of cutters are 1.6 and 1.6, respec- 
tively. The average number of children for 8 cutters born in Austria- 
Hungary, and 12 born hi the United States, are 2.3 and 1.8, respec- 
tively. The differences again can be accounted for partly by the differ- 
ences in age. Of the natives of Austrian Poland the median age for 
pressers, as shown in Table F, is 30 to 34, and for cutters, 25 to 29 ; of 
the natives of Austria-Hungary the median age for pressers is 35 to 39, 
and for cutters, 30 to 34. It is quite possible that other factors are 
involved, such as standards of living, but these age differences must 
be regarded as significant. 

When the comparison is made between pressers and cutters of the 
same age groups, however, not only is marriage more common among 
the pressers, but the number of children per family is progressively 
greater. This is clearly seen in the charts. 



Table H.-CONJUGAL CONDITION AND NUMBER OF CHILDREN.. BY COUNTRY OF 

BIRTH. 



Country of birth. 


Total. 


Num- 
ber 
sin- 
gle. 


Num- 
ber 
mar- 
ried. 


Number having— 


No 
chil- 
dren. 


1 

child. 


2 

chil- 
dren. 


3 
chil- 
dren. 


4 

chil- 
dren. 


5 

chil- 
dren. 


6 

chil- 
dren. 


7 

chil- 
dren. 


8 

chil- 
dren. 


9 

chil- 
dren. 


PRESSERS. 


70 
5 
5 

19 
1 


6 
1 


64 
4 

5 

18 
1 


6 


6 


9 


16 

2 
2 
3 


10 
1 


6 


3 


6 
1 


2 




Russian Poland 




Austria-Hungary 






2 
2 




1 
1 






1 


2 


3 


5 
1 


1 






1 








Total 






















100 


8 


92 


8 


9 


13 


23 


17 


7 


5 


7 


2 


1 


CUTTERS. 

Russia 


46 
1 

11 

12 
1 
4 
1 
2 

21 
1 


14 


32 
1 

8 
8 


9 


9 


8 


4 
1 
1 






1 




1 




Russian Poland 










Austria-Hungary 

Austrian Poland 


3 
4 
1 
2 


3 
1 




2 
2 


1 






1 






4 


1 








Roumania 














Germany 


2 
1 
1 
12 
1 


1 
1 




1 
















France 


















Italy 


1 

9 














1 






United States 


2 
1 


5 


2 


1 


1 


1 








England 










Total. 






















100 


34 


66 


18 


18 


15 




2 


2 


1 


2 


1 









150 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

AGE AT ENTERING THE INDUSTRY AND NUMBER OF YEARS IN THE 

INDUSTRY. 

Age at Entrance. — We may now compare the pressers and 
cutters with reference to the ages at which they entered the industry, 
and for this purpose present Tables I and J. 

Table I.— AGE AT ENTERING THE INDUSTRY, BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 



Number entering industry at age— 



Country of birth. 


Under 
18 


18 to 20 


21 to 24 


25 to 29 


30 to 34 


35 to 39 


40 to 44 


45 to 49 


Total. 


PRESSERS. 


3 


11 


14 


18 
2 
2 
7 


10 
1 
1 

2 


6 
1 
1 
1 


7 


[ 1 
1 


70 
5 
5 

19 
1 




Austria-Hungary 




T 

3 










4 


2 
1 










Total 
















3 


15 


18 


29 


14 


9 


10 


2 


100 


CUTTERS. 


14 
1 

5 
3 


18 


5 


6 


1 


1 




1 


46 

11 
12 

21 






Austria-Hungary 




2 
4 


3 


1 
1 








Austrian Poland 


4 
1 
1 








Roumania 










Germany 


1 
1 
1 

12 


1 


1 










France 










Italy 






1 










United States 


6 


2 


1 








England 


1 








Total 
















38 


30 


14 


12 


4 


1 




1 


100 






Table J.— AGE AT ENTERING THE INDUSTRY, BY AGE GROUPS. 


Age group (yfiars). 


Number entering industry at age- 


Total. 


Under 
18 


18 to 20 


21 to 24 


25 to 29 


30 to 34 


35 to 39 


40 to 44 


45 to 49 


PRESSERS. 

Under 18 




















18 to 20 




















21 to 24 


3 


4 
8 
1 


1 
10 

3 
3 
1 












8 
20 
15 
27 

9 
11 
10 


25 to 29 


2 
10 
15 
1 
1 










30 to 34 




1 

8 
1 
2 
2 








35 to 39 




1 

4 
2 
2 






40 to 44 




2 






45 to 49 




5 
5 


1 
1 


50 and over 








Total 










3 


15 


18 


29 


14 


9 


10 


2 


100 


CUTTERS. 

Under 18 




















18 to 20 


4 
13 
9 
5 
4 
2 
1 
















4 
21 
25 
17 
12 
11 
4 
6 


21 to 24 


7 
11 
6 
3 
1 


1 

5 
4 












25 to 29 












30 to 34 


2 
5 
3 
1 
1 










35 to 39 










40 to 44 


2 


2 
2 


1 






45 to 49 






50 and over 


2 


2 






1 


Total 










38 


30 


14 


12 


4 


1 




1 


100 







OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 151 

The median age at entrance for pressors lies in the 25 to 29 group, 
and that for cutters at 18 to 20. Of the pressers, 18 entered the 
industry under 21 years of age, as against 68 cutters; and of those 
who entered after 30 years of age there are 35 pressers and 6 cutters. 

Of 70 Russian-born pressers, 20 per cent (14) entered the industry 
under 21 years of age, as compared with 69.6 per cent (32) of the 
Russian-born cutters. Of the pressers, only 3 of the 19 Austrian 
Poles entered the industry under 21 years of age, as compared with 
7 out of 12 cutters of the same nativity. 

In view of the fact already noted that the median age of the 
American-born cutters is slightly higher than the median for the 100, 
it is interesting to note that the percentage entering the industry 
under 21 years of age, 85.7 (18 out of 21), is higher than for any other 
nationality group having more than one representative. The fact 
that more than one- third of the cutters (38) entered the industry 
under 18 years of age is perhaps as significant as any other single 
item in the table in suggesting a radical difference between the two 
occupations. The accompanying chart (No. 20) represents the 
numbers of individuals entering the industry at ages given, and 
illustrates the dissimilarity of the two distributions. 

Table J makes it possible to compare ages at entrance for different 
age groups. Of 72 pressers who are 30 years of age or over, only 3, 
or 4.2 per cent, entered the industry under 21 years of age; the cor- 
responding figures for cutters are 24 out of 50, or 48 per cent. Study- 
ing each age group separately it will be observed that the cutters 
uniformly enter the industry at earlier ages than the pressers. 

Years in the Industry.— Obviously if cutters at all age groups en- 
tered the industry younger than pressers, the former have been in 
the industry for longer periods. These facts are shown in detail in 
Tables K and L, from which it appears that the median number of 
years in the industry is 7 for pressers, and 9 for cutters. The mode 
for pressers falls at 7 years, and that for cutters even lower, at 6 
years. 

Comparing Russian-born cutters and pressers the median number 
of years in the industry is found to be the same. The only other 
considerable group of pressers, Austrian Poles, has the same median. 
The higher median for cutters is brought up principally by the num- 
ber of American born who entered at very early ages. 

From Table L it appears that of 72 pressers who are 30 years of age 
or over, 24, or 33.3 per cent, have been in the industry less than 7 
years, as compared with 3 out of 50 cutters, or 6 per cent. On the 
other hand, of 30 pressers who are 40 years of age or over, 11, or 36.7 
per cent, have been in the industry 15 years or over, as compared with 
15 out of 21 cutters, or 71.4 per cent. 



152 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Chart 20. — AGE AT ENTERING THE INDUSTRY OF 100 PRESSERS AND 

100 CUTTERS. 



AGE at ENTERING the INDUSTRY 



No. 
40 



mum = pressers 

I I = Cutters 



30 



20 



10 




J. 



18 
TO 

20 



Zl 
TO 
24 



25 
TO 
29 




OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTKY OF NEW YORK CITY. 153 



Table K. — NUMBER OF YEARS IN THE INDUSTRY, BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 







Employees reporting each specified number of years in the industry. 


Me- 






























Country of birth. 


Total. 


1 


2 


3 


4 





6 


7 


g 




10 to 
14 


15 to 
19 


20 to 
24 


25 to 
29 


30 
over. 


dian 
num- 
ber of 
years. 


PRESSERS. 




































-n 


1 


1 


5 


6 


6 


9 


14 


5 


5 


8 


6 


4 






7 


Russian Poland 

Austria-Hungary... 
Austrian Poland. .. 


5 


3 










1 


1 












5 
19 






2 












1 




1 


1 












2 


2 


4 


2 


2 


1 


5 
1 




1 








7 




....|.... 


















































Total 


100 


1 


1 


10 


8 


8 


13 


16 


7 


7 


16 


< 


5 


1 




7 
























CVJTTLP S 


































Russia 


46 






3 


2 


4 


10 


5 


3 


4 


7 


6 


2 






7 


2\USMaIl X UictllU. - - - 

Austria-Hungary... 
Austrian Poland . . . 
Ron mania 


1 


























1 




11 






1 


1 


1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


1 




1 


9 









1 




.... 


2 


2 


1 


4 










8 


1 








.... 



















Germany 






















1 






1 


2 




France 


1 








.... 












1 













Italy 


2 














1 






1 












United States 


21 






2 


1 




1 




1 


3 


5 


3 


2 


1 


2 


12 


England 


1 


















1 










































Total 


100 






6 


5 


6 


12 


9 


7 


9 


21 


12 


5 


2 


6 


9 





























Table L. — NUMBER OF YEARS IN THE INDUSTRY, BY AGE GROUPS. 



Employees reporting each specified number of years in the industry. 



Age group (years). 


Total. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 to 
14 


15 to 
19 


20 to 
24 


25 to 
29 


so 

and 
over. 


.Me- 
dian 
num- 
ber of 
years. 


PRESSERS. 
































18 to 20 










.... 






















21 to 24 


8 
20 
15 
27 

9 
11 
10 






1 


1 

4 

.... 
1 

1 


"3' 
1 


3 
4 
3 
3 


3 
4 
2 
4 
2 
1 


J 














6 
6 
6 
7 
14 
7 

11 


25 to 29 


1 




3 


2 
2 


1 

2 
9 
1 










30 to 34 




4 
4 
1 










35 to 39 




1 


...... 

1 
3 
1 








40 to 44 


3 






45 to 49 






4 




"2" 


2 






50 and over 






3 


2 


1 




Total 


















100 


1 


1 


10 


8 


8 


13 


16 


7 


7 


IK 


7 


5 


1 




7 


CUTTERS. 
18 to 20 






4 
21 
25 
17 
12 
11 

4 






2 
4 


1 
3 
1 


1 
1 

3 
1 




















3 
6 
7 
11 
16 
15 
18 
30 


21 to 24 






5 
5 


3 
5 


2. 

4 

1 


2 
4 
2 


1 

3 
9 
5 
2 
1 










25 to 29 








I 




30 to 34 








3 
4 
4 
1 






35 to 39 










3 






40 to 44 












1 






1 


1 
1 


2 




45 to 49 '. 
















1 

5 


50 and over 










.... 


1 










Total 
























100 






6 


5 


6 


12 


9 




9 


21 | 12 


5 


2 


6 


9 









The following chart (No. 21) indicates graphically the preponder- 
ance of pressors who have been in the industry less than 10 years, 
and of cutters who have been in 10 years or over. 



154 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

Chart 21 — NUMBER OF YEARS IN THE INDUSTRY FOR 100 PRESSERS 

AND 100 CUTTERS. 



NO. of YEAR5 in the INDUSTRY 



mm = pressers 




YEARS 

in the 1-4- s5~9 10-14 15-19 20-Up 

INDUSTRY 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 155 

YEARS IN THE UNITED STATES OF FOREIGN BORN AND YEARS IN THE 
UNITED STATES BEFORE ENTERING THE INDUSTRY. 

Years in United States. — It may be pertinent now to compare 
pressers and cutters*with respect to the number of years since com- 
ing to the United States, eliminating, of course, the American-born. 
Table M shows the facts. For pressers the median and mode both 
fall at 7 years; for cutters the median is 11 years, while the mode is 
8 years. With the exception of the single age group, 25 to 29, the 
median number of years in the United States is consistently greater 
at all ages for cutters than for pressers. 

Of 57 pressers who are 35 years of age or over, 29, or 50.9 per cent, 
have been in the United States less than 10 years; the corresponding- 
figures for cutters are 2 out of 25, or 8 per cent. On the other hand, 
of 30 pressers who are 40 years of age or over, 11, or 36.7 per cent, 
have been in the United States more than 15 years, as against 10 out 
pf 15 cutters — 66.7 per cent. 

Table M. — NUMBER OF YEARS IN THE UNITED STATES OF FOREIGN BORN, BY 

AGE GROUPS. 





Total 
for- 
eign 
born. 


Foreign born reporting each specified number of years residence in the 
United States. 


Me- 


Age group (years). 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 to 
14 


15 to 
19 


20 to 
24 


25 to 
29 


30 
and 
over. 


dian 
num- 
ber of 
years. 


PRESSEES. 




































































18 to 20 
































21 to 24 


8 






1 


1 




3 


3 
















6 


25 to 29 


20 
15 








2 


"2 


4 




3 


2 












7 


30 TO 34 






3 




1 


3 


2 


2 


3 


1 


...... 









7 


35 to 39 


27 




1 


3 


"2 




2 


3 


2 


2 


10 

1 


2 








9 


40 to 44 


9 






1 


1 






2 






2 


2 






14 
9 


45 to 49 


11 








1 


1 




3 




2 


1 


2 


1 






50 and over 


10 












~i i 


2 






2 


1 


1 


11 






























Total 


100 




1 


8 


7 


4 


12 


20 


8 


11 


16 


6 


5 


1 


1 


7 
























CUTTERS. 


































Under 18 


































18 to 20 


2 










1 










1 












21 to 24 


19 






1 


2 




1 


1 


4 




6 


4 








10 


25 to 29 


19 








"2 


4 


5 


3 


.... 


3 


1 








7 


30 to 34 


14 














2 


1 


1 





2 


1 


1 


1 


11 

+20 
+ 16 
17 


35 to 39 


10 


















2 


1 


3 


2 


2 


40 to 44 


7 
















1 


1 




2 


1 


1 


1 


45 to 49 


4 


















1 


1 


1 


1 


50 and over 


4 




















1 






3 


+30 






.... 




























Total 


79 






1 


2 


3 


5 


8 


9 


3 19 


11 


6 


5 


7 


11 


























Years in United States before Entering Industry. — A very 
marked difference between the two occupations is found upon ex- 
amination of the comparative readiness with which the newly arrived 
immigrant finds his way into them. Table N shows the number of 
years of interval after coming to the United States before entering 



156 BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



the industry. Deducting those who had already entered the industry 
before coming here, and those born here, it appears that 84 out of 96 
pressers, 87.5 per cent, were absorbed into the industry within a 
year after arrival, as against 36 out of 78 cutters, 46.2 per cent. 
Only 7.3 per cent of the pressers failed to get into the industry within 
2 years after coming to the United States, while 37.2 per cent (29) 
of the cutters required more than 2 years, and 26.9 per cent (21) 
required 6 years or more. 

Taking the Russian-born groups by themselves, an even greater 
disparity between pressers and cutters is observed. Chart 22 shows 
the distribution reduced to percentages of the total foreign-born 
pressers and cutters, respectively, and the distribution for the Rus- 
sian born, reduced to percentages of the Russian born. 

The facts here brought out are of interest particularly in con- 
junction with the previously emphasized facts that the cutters are 7 
to 8 years younger than the pressers (comparing the median ages), 
and in general enter the industry about 2 years earlier. 



Table N.— LENGTH OF TIME IN THE UNITED STATES BEFORE ENTERING THE INDUS- 
TRY, BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 



Country of birth. 


Total 
foreign 
born. 


Foreign born residing in t^e United States before, 
entering the industry— 


Under 
1 year. 


1 year. 


2 years. 


3 years. 


4 years. 


5 years. 


6 years 
and 
over. 


PRESSERS. 

Russia 


67 
5 
5 

18 
1 


58 
5 
3 

17 
1 


4 


3 








2 


Russian Poland 








Austria-Hungary 


1 










1 
1 


Austrian Poland 










Roumania 











Total 










1 96 


i 84* 


5 1 3 








4 


CUTTERS. 

Russia 

Austria-Hungary 













46 
11 
12 
1 
4 
1 
2 
1 


22 
3 
9 
1 
1 


2 


6 
2 


3 


2 
1 


1 
1 


10 
4 
1 


Austrian Poland 


2 




Roumania 










Germany 




1 








2 
1 
2 
1 


France 










Italy 














England 














Total 












2 78 


236 


4 


9 


3 


3 


2 


21 



1 Not including 4 who entered the industry before coming to the United States, 1 born in Austrian 
Poland and 3 in Russia. All went to work in the industry within 1 year after arrival. 

2 Not including 1 born in Russian Poland, who entered the industry before coming to the United States. 
He went to work in the industry within 1 year after arrival. 



From Table O it appears that of 40 foreign-born cutters under 30 
years of age, 18 entered the industry within a year after arrival, and 
the same is true of 18 out of 38 who are 30 years of age or over, 
indicating no significant difference between the younger and the older 
groups. The corresponding quantities in the table for pressers are 
too small to give any indication of a tendency. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 157 



Chart 22.— PER CENT OF FOREIGN-BORN AND OF RUSSIAN-BORN 
PRESSERS AND CUTTERS, BY CLASSIFIED NUMBER OF YEARS IN 
THE UNITED STATES BEFORE ENTERING THE INDUSTRY. • 



PERCENTAGE, of FOREIGN BORN HAVING GIVEN 
N0.YRS in U.S. BEFORE ENTERING INDUSTRY 

= Press ers 



] = Cutters 



Percent 
100 



90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 




Foreign Born 



N 
00 



LLi 



LESS 

Years than 
l YR 



«M — 

10 *0 - 



ON 



rnWMW 

2-5 6-Up 



Russian Born 



ON 

•0 
CM 



«0 ^ * 

lull 



ILL 



LESS 

TNAN 1 2-5 6-Uj 

IYR 



158 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Table O. — LENGTH OF TIME IN THE UNITED STATES BEFORE ENTERING THE INDUS- 
TRY, BY AGE GROUPS. 



Age group (years). 


Total 
foreign 
born. 


Foreign born residing in the United States before 
entering the industry— 


Under 
1 j ear. 


1 year. 


2 years. 


3 years. 


4 years. 


5 years. 


6 vears 
and 
over. 


PRESSERS. 

Under 18 


















18 to 20 


















21 to 24 


8 
19 
14 
26 

8 
11 
10 


8 
16 
13 

22 
8 
9 
8 














25 to 29 


o 
A 










1 
1 


30 to 34 










35 to 39 


2 


2 








40 to 44 










45 to 49 




1 








1 
1 


50 and over 


1 








Total 










1 96 


i 84 


5 


3 








4 


CUTTERS. 
























18 to 20 


2 
19 
19 
14 
10 
7 
3 
4 






1 
2 
1 

2 
1 
2 








j 

1 
3 
fi 
2 


21 to 24 


6 

12 
9 
3 
2 
3 
1 


1 

2 


1 

2 


2 




25 to 29 


1 


30 to 34 




35 to 39 










40 to 44 


1 








45 to 49 








50 and over 








1 




\ 


1 


Total 








2 78 


2 36 


4 


9 


3 


3 


2 


2] 





1 Not including 4 who entered the industry before coming to the United States, 1 each in age groups 2c 
to 29, 30 to 34, 35 to 39, and 40 to 44. All went to work in the industry within 1 year after arrival. 

2 Not including 1 in age group 45 to 49, who entered the industry before coming to the United States. 
He went to work in the industry within 1 year after arrival. 



PREVIOUS OCCUPATION AND METHOD OF LEARNING THE TRADE. 

Previous Occupation. — Since so large a proportion of both press- 
ers and cutters entered the industry as adults after coming to the 
United States, the next important question to be studied relates tc 
the previous occupations. This part of the inquiry was limited tc 
occupations in Europe, for interest centers in the effort to determine 
what influence, if any, such occupations have upon the conditions oi 
entrance into this industry. Whatever other occupations were 
engaged in after arrival in this country in most cases seem to have 
been regarded as merely temporary in nature. 

The first fact that arrests the attention in Table P is that only five 
pressers and five cutters learned the trade in which they are now 
employed before coming to the United States. 

Among the pressers, by far the largest group, 48, is made up of those 
reporting themselves as having been salesmen, or in business for them- 
selves. Inc[uiry into details elicited the information that in Russia 
to be a "business man" does not involve anything like the investment 
of capital or completeness of establishment that are implied by the 
typical American when he uses that expression. It was found in 
some cases, for example, that the " business" consisted of a push- 
cart, or a peddler's outfit, or other equally modest undertaking. 
This fact should be kept in mind, therefore, in studying the table. 

One is not prepared to find the larger number of the skilled mechanics 
drawn into this industry as pressers rather than cutt rs. The fact 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 159 



that cutting ranks higher as a skilled trade than pressing would lead 
one to expect that the former would attract most of the skilled 
workers that might be found among a miscellaneous aggregation of 
candidates for entrance into the industry. The explanation for this 
seeming anomaly, however, as well as for the comparatively large 
number of cutters with no previous occupation reported, is probably 
the large number of cutters belonging to the younger age groups— 
too young to have engaged in any occupation before coming to this 
country, and certainly too young to have acquired a skilled trade. 

The occupations specified and listed in connection with Table P 
are interesting as indicating the great variety of sources from which 
the cutters, and especially the pressers, have come. The following 
chart (No. 23) based on this table, shows the distribution in summa- 
rized form. 

This table indicates the small proportion of those who learned their 
present trades in any other way than u on the job," seven among the 
cutters and none at all among the pressers. The industry seems to 
have made a kind of provision for such training as is absolutely 
necessary, but the provision, such as it was, apparently offered less 
resistance to the presser than to the cutter. 

TABLE P.— PREVIOUS OCCUPATION IN EUROPE, AND METHOD OF LEARNING TRADE 

IN UNITED STATES. 



Country of birth. 


Total. 


Previous occupation in Europe. 


Learned 
trade 

in shop 
after 

coming 
to 

United 

States. 


Pres- 
ent 
occupa- 
tion. 


Profes- 
sion. 


Skilled 
trade. 


Sales- 
man or 
in busi- 
ness. 


Miscel- 
laneous 
occupa- 
tions. 


Farm 
or for- 
estry. 


No 
occupa- 
tion re- 
ported. 


PRESSERS. 


70 
5 
5 

19 
1 


4 


4 


20 
1 


28 
2 
4 

13 
1 


7 
1 


2 


5 
1 


66 
5 
5 

18 
1 


Russian Poland 


Austria-Hungary 






1 


Austrian Poland 


1 




2 


3 




Roumania 








Total 












100 


5 


i 4 


2 23 


48 


Ml 3 


6 




CUTTERS. 

Russia 


46 
1 

11 

12 
1 
4 
1 
2 

21 
1 


2 
1 

2 


6 


3 


17 


2 




16 


43 


Russian Poland 




Austria-Hungary 






3 
5 
1 
1 







6 
3 


9 
12 
1 
3 
1 

17 
1 


Austrian Poland 




1 




3 


Roumania 








Germany 













3 
1 
2 


France 












Italy 














United States 














England 






1 








Total 












100 


5 


5 6 64 


28 


' 2 


3 | 31 


8 88 





1 Includes teachers, 2; students, 2. 

2 Includes carpenters, 5; bakers, 2; shoemakers, 2; tobacco cutter, 1; millers, 2; locksmiths, 3; butchers, 
3; brass polisher, 1; ironworker, 1; brush maker, 1; wood turner, 1; boot and shoe laster, 1. 

3 Includes soap maker, 1; worker in leather factory, 2; conductor, 1; a^ent at railroad station, 1; drivers, 
2; worker in brewery, 1; bookkeeper, 1; railroad porter and clerk, 1; common laborer, 1. 

* Five others learned the trade before coming to the United States. 
5 Students. 

e Includes plasterer, 1; baker, 1; bookbinder, 1; tinsmith, 1. 
> Includes worker in match factory, 1; worker in saloon, 1. 

8 In addition to these, 7 others learned their trade in the United States, 5 by apprenticeship and 1 
each by private instruction and from member of his family; 5 others learned their trade before coming 
to the United States. 



160 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Chart 23.— PREVIOUS OCCUPATION IN EUROPE OF 100 FOREIGN-BORN 
PRESSERS AND 79 FOREIGN-BORN CUTTERS. 




o 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 161 
SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. 

Each individual was asked to state how many years he had gone 
to school, where the school was located, and the character of the 
school. The information thus given is classified and presented in 
Tables Q and R, but not with the idea that detailed comparisons are of 
great significance or profit. It has not been possible to attempt to 
evaluate in any way a year of training in the public elementary schools 
of New York in terms of training in the schools in Russia, Poland, and 
elsewhere, attended by these subjects. Much less is there available 
any definite measure of the comparative value of the work of the 
so-called public schools in Russia, in which the pupils pay tuition, and 
the Yiddish parochial or private schools, and other types which have 
been mentioned in the schedules. Further, before giving great weight 
to the findings of such an inquiry as this it would be desirable to 
classify the communities supporting the schools, roughly at least, as 
to their probable educational standards. If no more could be done 
than to classify the schools as rural, village, and urban, in accordance 
with some predetermined population scale, their products might be 
somewhat more comparable than is the case in the present study. 

Nevertheless it is believed that certain rough comparisons may be 
made on the basis of the data as collected. In order to separate 
incommensurable elements so far as possible, the tables are divided 
into three sections, each section exclusive of the others — attendance 
at: (1) Day school in Europe, (2) day school in the United States, 
and (3) evening school in the United States. 

Concerning day-school attendance in Europe, Table Q shows that 
all but 2 of the pressers, 98 per cent, went to school at least one year; 
of 79 foreign-born cutters, 64, or 81 per cent, went to school in Europe. 

The number of those attending day school in the United States is 2 
for pressers and 40 for cutters. The report of evening-school attend- 
ance is 21 pressers and 47 cutters; 5 pressers report two or more years 
of evening-school attendance, as compared with 34 cutters. 

A rough composite of the three sections of the table as shown in 
Chart 24, which follows Table Q, seems to indicate a somewhat better 
showing for cutters than for pressers, so far as amount of schooling 
is concerned. 

49169°— Bull. 147—15 11 



162 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

Table Q. — SCHOOL ATTENDANCE, BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 



[A fraction of a year equal to one-half or over is recorded as one year. Private lessons are arbitrarily 
recorded as equivalent to one-half the same length of time in regular day schools.] 



Country of birth. 


Total. 


Num- 
ber re- 
port- 
ing 
no 
school- 
ing. 


Number reporting given number of years 
of day schooling. 


Number reporting given 
number of years of even- 
ing schooling in United 
States. 


In Europe. 


In United States. 



yrs. 


lt0 4 
yrs. 


5 to 9 
yrs. 


10 
yrs. 
and 
over. 



yrs. 


1 to 4 
vrs 


5 to 9 
vrs. 


10 

yrs. 
and 
over. 




yrs. 


1 

vr 


2 
yrs. 


3 


4 
yrs. 

o\ er. 


PEESSERS. 


70 
5 
5 

19 
1 


2 




5 
1 


49 
4 
3 

10 


14 


66 
5 
5 

19 
1 


2 






53 
4 
4 

15 
1 


13 
1 


1 




1 


Russian Poland. 
Austria-Hungary.. 
Austrian Poland... 
Roumania 














2 
7 








1 

2 










2 








2 




















Total 






















100 


2 




8 


67 


23 


96 


2 






77 


16 


4 




1 


CUTTERS. 










46 
1 

11 

12 
1 
4 
1 
2 

21 
1 


1 


8 


8 


22 
1 
8 
7 
1 
3 


7 


33 
1 
8 

11 
1 
4 


7 


5 




17 
1 

8 
5 
1 
2 


8 


12 


5 


3 


Russian Poland. . . 
Austria-Hungary . . 
Austrian Poland... 






2 
1 


1 






2 
1 


1 




3 
3 








3 




2 


1 


1 








Germany 




1 
1 

21 














2 






France 










1 

17 




1 
1 
1 






Italv 






1 






1 
1 




16 


















3 


4 












1 




1 






Total 
























100 


1 


35 


10 


44 


10 


59 


9 


27 


4 


52 


13 


24 


6 


4 



A comparison of age groups, Table R, discloses the following facts: 
Of 28 pressers under 30 years of age, 23, or 82.1 per cent, have had at 
least 5 years of schooling in Europe, as against 26 out of 50 cutters, 
52 per cent. Of the same groups, no pressers have had 5 years of 
schooling in the United States, as against 16 cutters, or 32 per cent; 
10 pressers under 30 years of age have had one year or more of even- 
ing school, 35.7 per cent, as against 26 cutters, 52 per cent. Of those 
30 years of age or over, 67 out of 72 pressers, or 93.1 per cent, have had 
at least 5 years of schooling in Europe, as against 28 out of 50 cutters, 
56 per cent. Of the same groups, no presser has had any day school- 
ing in the United States, as against 18 cutters, 36 per cent ; 1 1 pressers, 
or 15.3 per cent, have had one year or more of evening school, as 
against 21 cutters, 42 per cent. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 163 
Chart 24. — SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF 100 PRESSERS AND 100 CUTTERS. 




164 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Table B.— SCHOOL ATTENDANCE, BY AGE GROUPS. 



Age group (years). 


Total. 


Num- 
ber re- 
port- 
ing 
no 
school- 
ing. 


Number reporting given number of years 
of day schooling. 


Number reporting given 
number of years of even- 
ing schooling in United 
States. 


In Europe. 


In United States. 



yrs. 


1 to 4 
yrs. 


5 to 9 

yrs. 


10 

yrs. 
and 
over. 



yrs. 


lto4 
yrs. 


5 to 9 
yrs. 


10 

yrs. 
and 
over. 



yrs. 


1 

yr. 


2 
yrs. 


3 
yrs. 


4 
yrs. 
and 
over. 


PRESSERS. 

Under 18 
































] S t o 20 






























21 to 24 


8 
20 
15 
27 

9 
11 

10 






2 
2 
1 
2 


5 
13 
10 
17 
7 
8 
7 


4 
4 

8 
2 
2 
2 


7 

18 
15 
27 
9 
10 
10 


1 
1 






4 
13 
12 
23 

5 
10 
in 


4 
4 

2 
3 
3 








25 to 29 


1 








2 
1 






30 to 34 












35 to 39 














1 


40 to 44 












1 




45 to 49 


1 
















50 and over 




1 
















Total 


















100 


2 





8 


67 


23 


96 


2 






77 


16 


4 




1 


CUTTERS. 

Under 18 








































18 to 20 


4 
21 
25 
17 
12 
11 
4 
6 




3 
6 
8 
6 
5 
5 




1 

10 
10 

8 
6 
3 
2 
4 




1 
11 
16 
10 

7 
6 
4 
4 




3 
7 
5 
5 
2 
3 




3 
10 
11 

8 
6 
6 
2 
6 




1 

4 
8 
4 
3 
3 
1 






21 to 24 




4 
3 
1 
1 


1 

4 
2 


2 
4 
1 
2 


1 


4 
2 
3 
2 
1 
1 


2 
2 
1 

.1 


1 
2 
1 


9t to 90 




30 to 34 




1 
1 
1 


35 to 39 




40 to 44 


1 


1 

2 




45 to 49 








50 and over 




2 






2 








Total 


















100 


1 


35 


10 


44 


10 


59 


9 


27 


4 


52 


13 24 


6 


4 





COMMAND OF LANGUAGE. 

The last section of the schedule consisted of questions as to the 
languages the individual is able to speak, read, and write. The re- 
sults, as presented in Tables S to Y, are far from satisfactory as a 
basis upon which to make detailed comparisons. The unreliability 
of data secured in the manner described has already been pointed 
out. It is possible that in the inquiry as to the number of languages 
these subjects can speak, read, and write, the influence of suggestion 
played some part in determining the answers. 

The original intention was to prepare a series of tests for dictation 
and oral and written exercises, the use of which would have made 
possible a more accurate measure of ability. Series of sentences in 
each of the different languages, arranged in ascending order of diffi- 
culty of comprehension or of expression, given with a time limit or 
some other easily applied uniformity of method, would have yielded 
more valuable results than were here actually obtained. Consid- 
eration of the amount of time and effort that would have been en- 
tailed by such a procedure, the possible unwillingness to cooperate 
on the part of the subjects, and the probable significance of the results 
in comparison with what it was hoped could be secured by a much 
simpler method, resulted in the decision to adopt the latter. 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 165 



It is believed that the results of the inquiry, crude as it was, are 
sufficiently significant to be worthy of presentation, at least in the 
following particulars: 

1. For the evidence given as to the polyglot character of the people 
engaged in these two occupations, reflecting to a considerable degree 
the conditions in the entire industry. 

2. For a comparison of the pressers and cutters with respect to the 
use of Yiddish, suggesting the extent to which the industry is influ- 
enced by racial considerations. 

3. For a comparison with respect to the use of English, and by 
implication the extent of adjustment to American ideals andstandards. 

Taking up the question of Yiddish first, the tables show that 9 press- 
ers speak Yiddish only, 1 speaks Yiddish and English, 1 speaks Yid- 
dish and Polish, and 19 speak their native language and Yiddish. 
Table Y presents an analysis of the facts reported in the last column 
of Table S, showing that all of those reporting ability to use more 
than two languages (70) speak Yiddish. All of the 100 pressers, there- 
fore, speak Yiddish; and by a similar calculation it is showm that 52 
pressers speak English. The corresponding numbers for cutters are: 
82 speak Yiddish; 85 speak English. 

Tables U and V show that all but 8 pressers reported ability to 
read, and all of the 8 unable to read were 25 years of age or over; 
24 pressers read one language only, Yiddish, while 19 cutters read 
one language only; in 16 cases, English. Combining the data in 
Tables U and Y, 90 pressers report ability to read Yiddish, and 35 
ability to read English; whereas 68 cutters read Yiddish and 81 read 
English. 

Tables W and X show- that 12 pressers, ranging in age from 25 to 
over 50 years, were unable to write; 22 pressers write one language 
only, Yiddish, while 25 cutters write one language only, of whom 20 
write English. Combining the data in Tables W and Y, 88 pressers 
report ability to write Yiddish, and 33 ability to write English; 
wdiereas 65 cutters write Yiddish, and 81 English. Charts 18 and 
19 (pp. 146 and 147) present a summary of the more important 
figures in graphic form. 



166 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Table S — LANGUAGE-SPEAKING ABILITY REPORTED, BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 



Country of birth. 


Total. 


One language 
only. 


Two languages. 


More 
than 
two 
lan- 
guages. 


Tfnp. 

lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Yiddish and— 


Native and — 


Total. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Polish. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Ger- 
man. 


PRESSERS. 

Russia 


70 
5 
5 

19 




8 


1 


1 




15 




17 


45 


Russian Poland 








5 


Austria-Hungary 

Austrian Poland 

Roumania 




1 














4 

16 










3 
1 




3 
1 














TotaJ 
















100 




9 


1 


1 




19 




21 


70 


CUTTERS. 

Russia 








46 

11 
12 
1 
4 
1 
2 
21 
1 






11 










11 


35 




1 












Austria-Hungary ... 

Austrian Poland 

Roumania 




4 
1 










4 
1 


11 
1 


























Germany 










4 






4 


France 














1 
1 

5 


Italy 










1 






1 

14 


United States 


2 








10 


4 


England 








Total 
















100 1 4 




16 




5 


10 


4 


35 1 61 









Table T LANGUAGE-SPEAKING ABILITY REPORTED, BY AGE GROUPS. 



Age group (years). 


Total. 


One language 
only. 


Two languages. 


More 
than 
two 
lan- 
guages. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Yiddish and— 


Native and— 


Total. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Polish. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Ger- 
man. 


PRESSERS. 

Under 18 






















18 t o 20 






















21 to 24 


8 




2 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 


1 






1 

3 
2 
6 
1 
4 
2 




2 
3 
2 
7 
1 
4 
2 


4 

14 
12 
19 
7 
6 
8 


25 to 29 


20 
15 
27 
9 










30 to 31 












35 to 39 







1 






40 to 44 










45 to 49 


11 
10 












50 and over 












Total 
















100 




9 


1 


1 




19 




21 


70 











CUTTERS. 






















18 to 20 


4 
21 
25 
17 
12 
11 
4 
6 






6 
3 
3 
3 




2 
1 
5 
2 




3 
8 
8 
6 
3 
3 


1 

13 
17 
11 
8 
6 
3 
2 


21 to 24 








1 




25 to 29 










30 to 3 1 









1 


35 to 39 


1 

2 








40 to 44 






2 




1 


45 to 49 










50 and over 






: :. 


2 





2 


4 


Total 












100 


4 




16 





5 


10 


4 


35 


61 










OCCUPATIONS IN" CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 167 
Table U.— LANGUAGE-READING ABILITY REPORTED, BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 



Two languages— 



Country of birth. 


To- 
tal. 


guage only. 


Yiddish and— 


Native and— 


Ger- 
man 
and 
Eng- 
lish. 


To- 
tai. 


than 
two 
lan- 
guag- 
es. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Pol- 
ish. 


He- 
brew. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Ger- 
man. 


Pol- 
ish. 


French. 


PRESSERS. 

Russia 


70 
5 
5 

19 
1 




18 
I 
I 

4 


1 


1 






18 




1 






21 


27 
3 
3 

11 


Russian Poland 

Austria-Hungary... 
Austrian Poland . . . 
Roumania 














































2 
1 








2 
1 


















Total 






















100 




24 


1 


1 






21 




1 






24 


44 


CUTTERS. 

Russia 














46 

11 
12 

21 
100 


2 
1 
1 
1 


2 


13 




1 




4 










18 


24 


Russian Poland 

Austria-Hungary . . . 
Austrian Poland . . . 
Roumania 














1 


2 


















2 
1 


7 

10 
1 








1 








































4 












4 
1 

2 
9 


France 




















1 




Italv 












2 












United States 


10 
1 










3 


5 




1 




2 


England 
















Total 


























16 


3 


15 




1 


6 


8 


5 




1 


1 


37 


44 










Table V.— LANGUAGE-READING ABILITY REPORTED, BY AGE GROUPS. 


Age group (years). 


To- 
tal. 


One lan- 
guage only. 


Two languages- 


More 
than 
two 
lan- 
guag- 
es. 


Yiddish and — 


Native and — 


Ger- 
man 
and 
Eng- 
lish. 


To- 
tal. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Pol- 
ish. 


He- 
brew. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Ger- 
man. 


Pol- 
ish. 


French. 


PRESSERS. 

Under 18 






























18 to 20 






























21 to 24 


8 
20 
15 
27 

9 
11 
10 




2 
5 
1 
6 
4 
5 
1 


1 








2 
1 
4 
7 
2 
2 
3 










3 
1 

4 
9 
2 
2 
3 


3 
12 
8 
11 
3 
3 
4 


25 to 29 


















30 to 34 


























1 








1 






40 to 44 
















45 to 49 








































Total 




















100 




24 


1 


1 






21 




1 






24 


44 


CUTTERS. 










































18 to 20 


4 
21 
25 
17 
12 
11 
4 
6 


3 
1 
3 
2 
3 
3 
1 


1 
























21 to 24 


6 
7 






1 


2 
2 
1 
1 
1 










9 
11 

5 
3 
4 


11 
11 
9 
5 
4 
3 
1 


25 to 29 






1 


1 
1 








30 to 34 


1 
1 


2 










1 


35 to 39 






1 

2 




1 


40 to 44 










1 






45 to 49 


























2 


1 


2 








5 


Total 
















100 


16 | 3 


15 




1 


6 


8 


5 




1 


1 


37 


44 









168 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Table W. — LANGUAGE-WRITING ABILITY REPORTED, BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH. 



Country of birth. 


To- 
tal. 


One lan- 
guage only. 


Two languages — 


More 
than 
two 
lan- 
guag- 
es. 


Yiddish and— 


Native and— 


Ger- 
man 
and 
Eng- 
lish. 


To- 
tal. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Pol- 
ish. 


He- 
brew. 


Eng- 
lish. 


V,.,- 

dish. 


Ger- 
man. 


Pol- 
ish. 




PRESSERS. 

Russia 


70 
5 
5 

19 
1 




18 
1 
1 

2 


2 


1 


1 




19 




1 






24 


22 
3 
3 

11 


Russian Poland 

A ust ria-Hungary . . . 
Austrian Poland. . . 
Roumania 












































2 
1 










2 
1 












































100 




22 


2 


1 


1 




22 




1 






27 


39 


CUTTERS. 

Russia 












46 

11 
12 

21 
100 


4 
1 
1 
1 


3 


10 




1 




4 










15 


24 


Russian Poland 

Austria-Hungary... 
Austrian Poland. .. 
Roumania 














2 


2 


















2 
1 


6 
10 
1 








1 




























Germany 












4 












4 
1 

2 
7 


France 






















1 




Italy 












2 












United States 


12 
1 












2 


4 




l 




2 


England 
















Total 


























20 


5 


12 




1 


6 


7 


4 




l 


1 


32 


43 









Table X.— LANGUAGE-WRITING ABILITY REPORTED, BY AGE GROUPS. 



Age group (years). 


To- 
tal. 


One lan- 


Two languages- 


More 
than 
two 
lan- 
guag- 
es. 


guage only. 


Yiddish and— 


Native and — 


Ger- 
man 
and 
Eng- 
lish. 


To- 
tal. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Pol- 
ish. 


He- 
brew. 


Eng- 
lish. 


Yid- 
dish. 


Ger- 
man. 


Pol- 
ish. 


French. 


PRESSERS. 






























18 to 20 






























21 to 24 


8 
20 
15 
27 

9 
11 
10 




3 
■> 

1 
5 
4 
5 
1 


1 








1 

2 
6 
7 
1 

2 
3 










2 
2 
6 
10 
1 
3 
3 


3 
11 
6 
10 
3 
2 
4 


25 to 29 


















30 to 31 




















35 to 39 






1 


1 






1 






40 to 44 














45 to 49 




1 
















50 and over 


















Total 




















100 




22 


2 


1 


1 




22 




1 






27 


39 


CUTTERS. 

Under 18 








































18 to 20 


4 

21 
25 
17 
12 
11 
4 
6 


3 
3 
4 
3 
3 
3 
1 


1 
























21 to 24 


5 
5 
2 






1 


1 
2 
1 
1 
1 










7 
9 
4 
3 
4 


11 
11 

9 
5 
4 
3 


25 to 29 


1 
1 
1 




1 


1 








30 to 31 










1 


35 to 39 






1 

2 






1 


40 to 44 








1 






45 to 49 


















1 








2 


1 


2 








5 


Total 


















100 


20 


5 


12 


1 


6 


7 


4 




1 


1 


32 


43 









OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 169 



TABLE T.— COMMAND OF ENGLISH AND YIDDISH BY THOSE REPORTING ABILITY TO 
USE MORE THAN TWO LANGUAGES. 





Number able to 
















use more than two 


English: Ability to — 


Yiddish: Ability to— 


Occupation. 


languages. 
















Speak. 


Read. 


Write. 


Speak. 


Read. 


Write. 


Speak. 


Read. 


Write. 


Pressers 


70 


44 


39 


51 


34 


31 


70 


43 


40 


Cutters 


61 


44 


43 


60 


43 


42 


56 


41 


40 



From Table S it appears that 70 pressers and 61 cutters speak 
more than two languages; 9 pressers speak one language only, Yid- 
dish; 4 cutters speak one language only, but the language is English. 
The 9 pressers speaking only one language are distributed over six 
age groups, from 21 to 49 years; whereas the 4 cutters are all over 35 
years of age and under 50. 

About twice as many pressers (19) as cutters (10) speak their 
native language and Yiddish, of those speaking tw T o languages only; 
but 16 cutters speak Yiddish and English, as against 1 presser. 

In order to obtain a comparison in respect to speaking knowledge 
of Yiddish and English, it is necessary to combine the data separated 
in the tables in three sections. 

SUMMARY. 

For convenience of reference the more important facts that appear 
in the tables may be summarized, as follows : 

Median age for 100 individuals : Pressers, 35 to 39; cutters, between 
29 and 30. 

Modal age group: Pressers, 35 to 39; cutters, 25 to 29. 

Number who are 45 years of age or over: Pressers, one-fifth (21); 
cutters, one-tenth (10). 

Number under 25: Pressers, one-twelfth (8); cutters, one-fourth, 
(25). 

Number under 30: Pressers, about one-fourth (28); cutters, one- 
half (50). 

Born in United States: Pressers, none; cutters, 21. 
Born in Russia: Pressers, 70; Cutters, 46. 

Median age for Russian born: Pressers, 35 to 39; cutters, 25 to 29. 
Median age for American born: Cutters, 30 to 34. 
Number who are married: Pressers, 92; Cutters, 66. 
Percentage of married having no children: Pressers, 8.7; cutters, 
27.3. 

Children in families of the married: Pressers, average, 3.4, median, 
3; cutters, average, 1.7, median, 1. 

Percentage married of those under 30 years of age: Pressers, 78.6, 
average number of children, 1.82; cutters, 42, average number of chil- 
dren, 0.76. 



170 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

Percentage married of those 40 years of age or over: Pressers, 100, 
average number of children, 5.2; cutters, 85.7, average number of 
children, 2.8. 

Comparing pressers and cutters of the same age groups, not only 
is marriage more common among pressers, but the number of chil- 
dren per family is progressively greater. 

Median age at entrance into the industry: Pressers, 25 to 29; cut- 
ters, 18 to 20. 

Number entering the industry under 21 years of age: Pressers, 18; 
cutters, 68. Under 18 years of age: Pressers, 3; cutters, 38. 

Number entering the industry after 30 years of age: Pressers, 35; 
cutters, 6. 

Percentage of Russian born who entered the industry under 21 
years of age: Pressers, 20; cutters, 69.6. 

Percentage of American-born cutters who entered the industry 
under 21 years of age, 85.7, is higher than for any other nationality 
group having more than one representative. 

Percentage of those 30 years of age or over who entered the indus- 
try under 21 years of age: Pressers, 4.2; cutters, 48. Comparing 
each age group separately, the cutters uniformly entered the industry 
at earlier ages than the pressers. 

Median number of years individuals have been in the industry: 
Pressers, 7; cutters, 9. 

Number of those 30 years of age or over who have been in the 
industry less than 7 years: Pressers, 24 out of 72, 33.3 per cent; cut- 
ters, 3 out of 50, 6 per cent. 

Number of those 40 years of age or over who have been in the indus- 
try 15 years or over: Pressers, 11 out of 30, 36.7 per cent; cutters, 15 
out of 21, 71.4 per cent. 

Median number of years in United States for those of foreign birth: 
Pressers, 7; cutters, 11. With the exception of the single age group, 
25 to 29, the median number of years in the United States is con- 
sistently greater at all ages for cutters than for pressers. 

Number of those 35 years of age or over who have been in United 
States less than 10 years : Pressers, 29 out of 57, 50.9 per cent; cutters, 
2 out of 25, 8 per cent. 

Number of those 40 years of age or over who have been in United 
States more than 15 years: Pressers, 11 out of 30, 36.7 per cent; 
cutters, 10 out of 15, 66.7 per cent. 

Number of those foreign born who entered the industry within a 
year after arrival in the United States: Pressers, 84 out of 96, 87.5 
per cent; cutters, 36 out of 78, 46.2 per cent. 

Of 40 foreign-born cutters under 30 years of age, 18 entered the 
industry within a year after arrival in this country, and the same is 



OCCUPATIONS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY OF NEW YORK CITY. 171 



true of 18 out of 38 who are 30 years of age or over, indicating no 
significant difference between the younger and the older groups. 

Only 5 pressers and 5 cutters learned their trades before coming to 
this country. 

Previous occupations in Europe include: 



Cutters. 



Present occupation 

Profession 

Skilled trade.... 

Salesman, or in business 

Farm, or forestry 

Miscellaneous 

No occupation reported . 



4 
23 
48 

3 
11 

6 

100 



79 



The proportion of those who learned their trade in any other way 
than "on the job" is small, including none of the pressers and only 
7 cutters, of whom 5 report having served apprenticeship, one learned 
his trade from a relative, and one by private instruction. 

Number of those having one year or more of day schooling in 
Europe: Pressers, 98; cutters, 64 (81 per cent of the foreign-born 
cutters). 

Number of those having one year or more of day schooling in 
United States: Pressers, 2; cutters, 40. 

Number of those having one year or more of evening-school attend- 
ance in United States: Pressers, 21; cutters, 47. Number having 2 
years or more: Pressers, 5; cutters, 34. 

Number of those under 30 years of age who have had 5 years or 
more of schooling in Europe: Pressers, 23, 83.1 per cent; cutters, 26, 
52 per cent. Having 5 years of day schooling in United States: 
Pre sers, none; cutters, 16, 32 per cent. Having one year or more 
of evening schooling in United States: Pressers, 10, 35.7 per cent; 
cutters, 26, 52 per cent. 

Number of those 30 years of age or over who have had 5 years or 
more of schooling in Europe: Pressers, 67, 93.1 per cent; cutters, 28, 
56 per cent. Having one year or more of day schooling in United 
States: Pressers, none; cutters, 18, 36 per cent. Having one year or 
more of evening school in United States: Pressers, 11, 15.3 per cent; 
cutters, 21, 42 per cent. 

Tables S to Y. — Number of pressers who speak two or more lan- 
guages, 91; cutters, 96. Number who read two or more languages: 
Pressers, 68; cutters, 81. Number who write two or more languages: 
Pressers, 66; cutters, 75. 

Number of pressers reporting inability to read, 8; inability to 
write, 12; there are no cutters reporting inability to read or write. 



172 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

The differences between the numbers of pressers and cutters who 
speak, read, and write one language only, respectively, are not large 
enough to be significant in themselves, but when the languages are 
taken into consideration it is seen that the groups thus compared are 
made up of entirely different elements. Number who speak one 
language only: Pressers, 9, Yiddish; cutters, 4, English. Number 
who read one language only: Pressers, 24, Yiddish; cutters, 19, of 
whom 16 read English. Number who write one language only: 
Pressors, 22, Yiddish; cutters, 25, of whom 20 write English. 

Comparing pressers and cutters with respect to ability to use 
Yiddish and English, irrespective of command of other languages, 
very decided differences in the composition of the two groups are 
found. Number who speak Yiddish: Pressers, 100; cutters, 82. 
Number who read Yiddish: Pressers, 90; cutters, 68. Number who 
write Yiddish: Pressers, 88; cutters, 65. Number who speak Eng- 
lish: Pressers, 52; cutters, 85. Number who read English: Pressers 
35; cutters, 81. Number who write English: Pressers, 33; cut- 
ters, 81. 

APPRENTICESHIP PLAN FOR CUTTERS. 

In the inquiry concerning the method of learning the trade, appren- 
ticeship was interpreted somewhat narrowly to mean a formal, 
definitely organized plan of learning and teaching a trade, involving 
a contractual relation with mutual obligations. In this sense, as 
noted, there is no apprenticeship system for either pressers or cutters 
in this industry at the present time, and there has been none in recent 
years. The necessity for some means that will accomplish the 
training of beginners and raise the general average of skill and 
efficiency exists in both occupations now as in the past, however, 
and the practical disappearance of apprenticeship has stimulated 
the development of various private agencies for the purpose and of 
informal agreements between employer and employee. 

Examples of these arrangements will be found referred to in the 
individual histories, pages 142 to 145. In some cases the employer, or 
the foreman, or a fellow workman undertakes to teach the beginner for 
a financial consideration — a plan which, it is pretty well understood, 
works to the disadvantage of both worker and employer. It is not a 
good plan for the worker, for in its informality there is no guaranty 
of protection or consideration of his rights, and, as a matter of fact, 
there is usually great discrepancy between what he is led to expect 
to have done for him and the service actually rendered. The plan 
is equally unsatisfactory to the employer, especially when it is carried 
on surreptitiously, as it frequently is. 

Other attempts to meet the situation have resulted in the organ- 
ization of so-called cutting or designing schools. These are for the 



APPRENTICESHIP PLAN FOR CUTTERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 173 



most part small establishments, lacking in adequate facilities for 
imparting a practical training. 

In the case of pressers the usual conditions of the factory shop 
seem to make it possible for the ordinary individual without experi- 
ence or special training to acquire the necessary skill on the job and 
work up to a fairly satisfactory wage-earning status in a reasonable 
length of time. There are those among both employers and 
employees, however, who believe that the industry is seriously handi- 
capped by the lack of suitable provision for a supply of skilled 
cutters. 

Recognizing this favorable attitude on both sides, it was decided 
to undertake the formulation of an apprenticeship plan for cutters. 
With this object in view, a series of conferences was arranged with a 
number of skilled mechanics from among the officers of the Cutters' 
Union, Local No. 10, at which the entire field was gone over very 
carefully and in great detail. 

After each conference the points developed and discussed to the 
stage of agreement were reduced to writing, and copies distributed at 
the next meeting for further discussion and revision. The final 
result of several weeks of this process appears in the following pages: 

RULES AND PLAN OF PROCEDURE ADOPTED BY THE JOINT BOARD OF 
EXAMINERS FOR CUTTERS' APPRENTICES. 1 

The Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Manufacturers' Protective Association, of New York 
City, and the Joint Board of Local Unions of the International Ladies' Garment 
Workers' Union, of New York City, hereby mutually agree and concur in the organ- 
ization of a joint board of examiners for cutters' apprentices for the cloak, suit, and 
skirt industry of Greater New York, to be governed by the following rules and plan 
of procedure: 

I. Immediately upon the adoption of these rules and plan of procedure, the par- 
ties to this agreement shall appoint, respectively, three (3) persons representing the 
association, and three (3) persons representing the cutters' union, who shall constitute 
themselves into a board, and shall thereafter be known as "The joint board of exam- 
iners for cutters' apprentices." Hereafter in these rules it will be referred to as 
"the board. L " 

II. The board shall immediately elect two chairmen, one from each side, who shall 
preside alternately for two weeks. These officers shall hold office for one year, or 
until their successors are elected. 

III. The members of the board shall be appointed by the parties to this agreement, 
as follows: One representative from each side for a term of one year; one representa- 
tive from each side for a term of two years; and one representative from each side for a 
term of three years. Thereafter, one representative from each side shall be appointed 
each year for a term of three years, and the term of office for members of the board 
shall be three years, or until their successors are appointed . 

1 After this agreement had been formulated, as the result of the series of conferences as noted else- 
where, it was used by representatives of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education 
as a model in drafting a similar agreement to be submitted to the unions and manufacturers in the 
dress and waist industry. See Bulletin No. 145. 



174 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



IV. As soon as practicable after its organization, the board shall appoint two deputy 
examiners, to be hereafter known as clerks, one representative of each side, who shall 
act as joint secretaries of the board. 

V. The duties of the clerks shall include: 

1. The maintenance of a system of card records, certificates of apprenticeship, and 
other forms, as may be determined hereafter by the board. 

2. The examination of apprentices, and applicants for admission to the industry as 
cutters, at such times and in such manner as may be determined hereafter by the 
board. 

3. Such other duties as may be determined hereafter by the board. 

VI. The parties to this agreement shall defray, in equal proportions, the actual and 
necessary expenses of the board. The services of members of the board shall be 
rendered without compensation. The compensation of the clerks shall be determined 
by mutual agreement of the parties to this agreement, and paid by the same in equal 
proportions. 

VII. A chairman shall preside at all meetings of the board. 

VIII. Four (4) members, including two representatives from each side, shall con- 
stitute a quorum of the board for the transaction of business. 

IX'. The board shall meet at such times and places, or in accordance with such 
regular program or schedule, as shall be determined hereafter by mutual agreement 
at any regular meeting of the board. 

X. The board shall have general jurisdiction over the cutters' apprentices in the 
cloak, suit, and skirt industry in Greater New York from the time of entrance into 
the industry until the attainment of the status of full journeyman cutter, including 
the examination and certification of all candidates for apprenticeship or for admission 
to the industry as cutters, and the enforcement of such rules and regulations as shall 
be hereafter adopted. All applications for admission to apprenticeship shall be made 
through the board. 

XI. The following conditions governing grades of apprenticeship, length of service, 
and minimum weekly wage shall prevail. 

PROPOSED GRADES, DEFINITION, LENGTH OF SERVICE, AND MINIMUM 

WEEKLY WAGE. 

Grade 1. — Canvas cutter — grade A (rough canvas): This term is to mean the cutting 
of canvas or percaline larger than the cloth, where the cloth is cut exact, leaving it to 
the operator or finisher to trim the canvas exactly to the cloth after the stitching around 
the seams. Period of service, 6 months; minimum weekly wage, $6. 

Grade 2. — Canvas cutter — grade B (canvas exact): This term is to mean the cutting 
of the canvas or percaline exactly to the pattern for those parts of the garment where 
the class of material or the style of the garment require it. Period of service, 6 months; 
minimum weekly wage, $9. 

Grade 3. — Canvas cutter— grade C (full canvas cutter): This term is to mean that 
the worker must be able to take the direction card with the lot of garments as cut 
and cut the canvas or percaline required for the lot, according to the direction card. 
Period of service. 6 months; minimum weekly wage. $12. 

Grade 4. — Lining cutter — grade A: This term is to mean the cutting of linings upon 
markers supplied by the trimmer. Period of service, 12 months; minimum weekly 
wage, $14. 

Grade 5— Lining cutter— grade B: This term is to include the marking of linings and 
the exact cutting of same, also the exact cutting of all outside trimmings. No appren- 
tice of this grade shall be employed in any shop that does not also employ, at the 
same time, a full journeyman meclianic in the trimming department. Period of 
service, 12 months; minimum weekly wage, $17. 



APPRENTICESHIP PLAN FOR CUTTERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 175 



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176 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



Grade 6. — Cloth cutter — grade A: This term is to mean the cutting of cloth upon 
markers supplied by the cloth cutter. Period of service, 6 months; minimum weekly 
wage, $18. • 

Grade 7. — Cloth cutter — grade B: This term is to include the marking and cutting 
of all cloth required for a garment. No apprentice of this grade shall be employed in 
any shop that does not also employ, at the same time, a full journeyman cutter. 
Period of service, 12 months; minimum weekly wage, $20.. 

XII. As soon as practicable after its organization, the board shall formulate and 
announce arrangements for the examination and certification of all cutters now 
employed in the industry or to be employed hereafter, and shall proceed to carry the 
same into effect. 

XIII. The following rules and regulations shall govern the apprenticeship system 
for cutters: 

1. Applicants for admission to the trade as cutters' apprentices must be not less than 
sixteen (16) years of age. No applicant may be admitted to apprenticeship who has 
passed his eighteenth (18th) birthday. 

2. The board shall draft a suitable blank form of application for admission to the 
trade as an apprentice of grade 1, which shall be filled out by each applicant. Each 
such application must be indorsed by the prospective employer of the apprentice. 

3. The board shall furnish to each successful applicant a certificate, valid in any 
shop in the industry, permitting the holder to work as an apprentice cutter of grade 1. 
Upon the submission by the holder of a grade 1 certificate of proof of six months' 
service in grade 1, the board shall issue in exchange therefor a certificate permitting 
the holder to work as an apprentice cutter of grade 2. Similarly, upon the submission 
by the holder of a grade 2 certificate of proof of six months' service in grade 2, the 
board shall issue in exchange therefor a certificate permitting the holder to work as an 
apprentice cutter of grade 3. 

4. No apprentice shall be permitted to apply for an examination for entrance upon 
grade 4 until after a minimum total period of service, in one or more shops, of 18 
months. 

5. Beginning with grade 3, there shall be an examination of each apprentice at 
the completion of service in each grade, in order to authorize promotion into the 
next grade. After such examination, the board shall furnish to each successful appli- 
cant an appropriate certificate. 

6. Beginning with grade 4, the board may permit a shortening of the proposed peri- 
ods of service, to not less than a minimum of two-thirds (§) of the total time required, 
for individuals of demonstrated exceptional ability; and shall require longer periods 
of service than the maximums designated from individuals who show inability to 
meet the requirements. 

7 . The board shall draft a suitable blank form of application for examination which 
shall be filled out by each applicant, and shall determine the conditions under which 
requests for examination will be granted. 

8. No apprentice shall be employed on work of a grade higher than that for which 
he holds a certificate issued by the board. 

9. Provision shall be made in the industry, through the joint action of the parties 
to this agreement, for a system of training supplementary to the work of the shops, 
under the control of the board, for the purpose of facilitating and encouraging indi- 
vidual advancement. 

10. Whenever provision shall have been made for the establishment of a system 
of supplementary training, the following principles shall govern the operation of the 
same: 

a. The work of the proposed school, or classes, shall be carried on principally during 

the slack seasons. 

b . The apprentice shall be required to pay into the treasury of the board a weekly 
assessment, to be hereafter determined, during the period while he is employed. 



APPRENTICESHIP PLAN FOR CUTTERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 177 



c. The employer shall pay into the treasury of the board a weekly assessment, 
to be hereafter determined, for each apprentice in his employ, during the period 
while the apprentice is receiving instruction in the classes provided by the board. 

d. The funds acquired by the treasury of the board, as provided herein, shall be 
used toward defraying the necessary expenses incurred in the instruction of appren- 
tices under its control. 

e. The necessary expenses incurred in the instruction of apprentices by the board, 
as provided herein, over and above the amounts received in assessments, shall be 
defrayed by contributions from the parties to this agreement in equal proportions. 

XIV. The employment of apprentices shall be subject to the following conditions: 

1. The number of apprentices in any shop shall be determined by the number of 
full journeymen cutters employed therein. The number of apprentices to which 
any shop shall be entitled, therefore, shall vary with the season. 

2. Any shop employing one (1) or more full journeymen cutters shall be entitled 
to one apprentice of any grade. 

3. Any shop employing six (6) or more full journeymen cutters shall be entitled 
to two (2) apprentices. 

4. Any shop employing nine (9) or more full journeymen cutters shall be entitled 
to three (3) apprentices. 

5. No shop shall be entitled to more than one (1) apprentice of the same grade 
nor to more than a total of three (3) apprentices at any one time. 

6. After the completion of his apprenticeship, the graduate apprentice shall not 
be eligible to employment in the shop in which he completes his apprenticeship in 
preference to other mechanics already employed therein. 

PROPOSED FORM OF APPRENTICE CERTIFICATE. 

Apprentice Certificate — grade 1. No 

Canvas cutter — grade A. 

JOINT BOARD OF EXAMINERS FOR CUTTERS' APPRENTICES, CLOAK, SUIT, AND SKIRT 
INDUSTRY, GREATER NEW YORK. 

Office, — West — th St. Telephone, Gramercy — . 

Mr 

Address 

is entitled to work as an apprentice canvas cutter, grade A, while employed by 



Address 

Issued 1914. Clerk. 

Note. — The holder of this certificate is required to report weekly to the office of the joint board of 
examiners. 

Print certificates on stock approximately 3 by 5 inches, using a different color 
for each grade of certificate. 

Provide a suitable leather pocketbook in which to carry the certificate, similar 
to the books in which traveling men carry railroad passes. The book should have 
two flaps made of celluloid, under one of which the certificate should be slipped, 
while under the other a photograph of the holder should be sewed. 

Provide a copy of the "Rules and regulations" in small booklet form, for insertion 
in a pocket in the certificate book. 

Print on the reverse side of the certificate the following notice: 

Note. — The attention of the apprentice is directed to the circular of instructions containing extracts from 
"The rules and plan of procedure adopted by the joint board of examiners for cutters' apprentices." 

49169°— Bull. 147—15 12 



178 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OE LABOR STATISTICS. 



OUTLINE OF EXAMINATIONS SUGGESTED TO DETERMINE PROMOTIONS. 

Examination at end of grade 3, for entrance into grade 4. 

1. State what is meant by cutting canvas in the rough. 

2. State what is meant by cutting canvas exact. 

3. State what parts of a jacket require canvas. 

4. Describe two of these parts. 

5. Describe the kinds of garments that require the cutting of canvas exact. 

6. State what is meant by the foundation of a garment. 

7. Without a direction card, how would you find out what canvas parts are required 
in a garment? 

8. Describe the parts of the canvas that are to be cut straight, and the parts that 
are to be cut on the bias. 

9. Practical test: Supply the candidate with a set of patterns, cutting tickets, and 
the necessary materials. Required: To cut out the canvas exact for one pattern, six 
up, according to instructions on the cutting ticket. 

Examination at end of grade 4, for entrance into grade 5. 

1. On a two-sized lay of silk, would you face the lining? Why? 

2. What silks have a right side and a wrong side? 

3. Upon receiving a single-sized marker, on the open, how would you lay up the 
silk? 

4. Practical test: Supply the candidate with a marker, cutting tickets, and the 
necessary materials. Required: To lay up the goods ready for cutting. 

Examination at end of grade 5, for entrance into grade 6. 

1. Describe the parts of the suit that are lined. 

2. Describe what is meant by: 

a. A full-lined garment. 

b. A half -lined garment. 

c. A yoke-lined garment. 

3. Describe how you would cut the linings for: 

a. A full-lined garment. 

b. A half -lined garment. 

c. A yoke-lined garment. 

4. Describe what is meant by outside trimmings. 

5. Describe how you would make a chart (or schedule) from the cutting tickets. 

6. State several color schemes that provide satisfactory contrasts or combinations. 

7. When is it necessary to use interlinings? 

8. When is it necessary to use percaline? 

9. Practical test: Supply the candidate with a set of patterns, cutting tickets, 
direction card, and the necessary materials. Required: To draft a chart from the 
cutting tickets, make a practical lay from the patterns and materials supplied, and a 
practical demonstration of satisfactory color schemes. 

Examination at end of grade 6, for entrance into grade 7. 

1. Describe the different cloth parts of: 

a. A jacket. 

b. A skirt. 

c. A cloak. 

2. Describe the kinds of cloth that require to be cut in one direction only. 

3. In cutting a garment on the open, when is it necessary to face the layers? 

4. If the garment has a breast pocket, which side would you cut it in? 

5. Practical test: Supply the candidate with marker, cutting tickets, and the 
necessary materials. Required: To lay up the goods ready for cutting. 



PLAN FOR EDUCATION OF WORKERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 179 



Examination at end of grade 7, for status of full journeyman cutter. 

Style No. 745. 

Shade. 32 34 86 88 10 AS LL 

Black. .. 1 .. 1 l . 

Tan. 1 1 1 1 1 

Brown. .. 1 1 1 

Silver gray. 1 1 1 1 

Style No. 745. 

Shade. 82 34 36 38 10 42 44 

Black. .... 2 2 2 1 1 

Gray. .. 1 .. 1 

Mahogany. 1 .. 1 .. 1 

New blue. 1111111 

Style No. 745. 

Shade. 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 

Black. .... 1 1 1 1 l 

Red. .. 12 2 

Tan. 1 1 1 

Style No. 745. 

Shade. 82 34 36 38 40 42 44 

Black. 12 3 3 2 2 1 

Blue. 1 2 3 3 1 1 

Brown. 1 2 2 2 1 

Green. .. 1 1 1 

1. Given the foregoing orders: Make a chart, covering these orders, showing the 
method by which you would cut out the sizes required with the greatest economy 
of goods, together with the fewest number of markers. 

2. A certain style of suit requires 3| yards of goods in size 36. Given a piece of 
goods of 50 yards: How would you arrange your scale of 34, 36, 38, and 40 sizes in order 
to use up the piece to the best advantage? 

3. Describe the effects produced by cutting velours with the nap, and against the 
nap. 

4. How would you proceed to make a shaded lay? 

5. Practical test: Supply the candidate with a set of patterns, cutting tickets, 
direction card, and the necessary materials, including plaids, striped goods, figured 
goods, and chevrons. Required: To draft a chart from the cutting ticket; to make a 
practical lay from the patterns and materials supplied; and to give a practical demon- 
stration of the process of cutting a cloak or jacket with a longer or shorter waist than 
the pattern given. 

EDUCATION FOR THE WORKERS IN THE INDUSTRY. 



The facts which have been set forth in the foregoing pages empha- 
size two significant characteristics of pressers and cutters which must 
be taken account of in any plans for education: (1) The workers 
in these two occupations are predominantly a foreign-born non- 
English-speaking group; (2) They are distinctively an adult group, 
three-fourths of the cutters being 25 years of age or over, and three- 
fourths of the pressers being 30 years of age or over. The impres- 
sion gained from visits to numerous factories, and confirmed by 
employers and union officials alike, is that these conditions are 
characteristic of the entire industry. Aside from cutters, the num- 
bers of American born, or of those who are under 20 years of age, 
are almost negligible. With the exception of cutters, the industry 
at the present time seems to depend almost entirely for its supply 
of workers upon a stream of adult foreigners. 



180 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

The results of the inquiry as to the amount and character of school 
training suggest that existing agencies are not contributing materi- 
ally to the needs of these groups. Without doubt the explanation 
of this fact is found not in the inadequacy or unsuitability of the 
school facilities offered, but rather in human nature itself. Most of 
the workers concerned have passed well beyond the period when 
physical and intellectual plasticity afford conditions favorable to 
growth. Habits have become fixed, the responsibilities of family 
life have been assumed, aspiration and ambition are not what they 
once were — in short, the path to further progress and development 
is effectually blocked. It is scarcely necessary to point to the ex- 
perience of evening schools everywhere which have been striving 
for decades to provide all kinds of classes to meet all kinds of needs, 
namely, that the great bulk of those who can and will avail them- 
selves of educational opportunities are under 21 years of age. 

Nevertheless, the industry is greatly in need of new types of 
workers. One of the needs, as has been pointed out already, is 
creative ability. Under the present system a large proportion of 
the garments produced, and new styles developed, represent the 
appropriation by the manufacturer of such ideas and suggestions, 
originated by others, as his agents are able to utilize. A fine gar- 
ment is purchased abroad, brought to New York, and copied, with 
as many modifications and variations as the ingenuity of the designer 
will permit. It is practically a kind of conventionalized piracy that 
has attained to a certain status of respectability for the reason that 
"everybody is doing it." What the industry needs is a new class 
of workers— designers, cutters, tailors, etc. — who are able not only 
to adjust themselves to rapidly changing styles and turn readily 
and skillfully from the construction of one kind of garment to another, 
but also to originate and execute new ideas. 

A second and equally important need is for workers possessing a 
higher degree of artistic temperament and appreciation, since the 
possession of the artistic quality of style means the difference between 
success and failure. The decision as to the lines of a garment is too 
often left to men who have no conception of the rules of design or 
the principles of art; the responsibility for choosing and adapting 
color schemes is frequently intrusted to those who lack even a rudi- 
mentary understanding of color harmony; and the details of orna- 
mentation are often worked out with no more intelligence and 
esthetic appreciation than is required to manipulate a patchwork 
puzzle. Too much reliance is placed on rules of thumb and formulas 
whose meaning and derivation are quite beyond the comprehension 
of those who resort to them. 

The obvious remedy, and the only remedy, for these conditions 
is more and better training for the workers. The requisite skill in 



PLAN FOE EDUCATION OF WORKERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 181 

workmanship, artistic appreciation, and creative ability can be 
secured in no other way. It is equally obvious that very little can 
be accomplished in these directions by attempting to transform adult 
workers. Something can be done that is worth while, perhaps, but 
the hope of the industry is in the training of younger workers than 
those who constitute the vast majority in this industry. An effort 
must be made to find all those who are still young enough to be 
susceptible to the influence of training and to concentrate attention 
upon them. 

The industry has undergone a significant evolution during the 
past 10 or 15 years, because of the tremendous increase in the de- 
mand for ready-made garments. The perfection of manufacturing 
processes, the development of factory organization, and the econo- 
mies of large scale production have now made available for the great 
mass of the people garments of quality and serviceability that 25 
years ago were within the reach of only the wealthy. It is very 
difficult to realize the enormous expansion in the volume of business 
that has taken place in recent years. The ready-made garment made 
its first appeal to the wearer of cheap clothing, and the product was 
inferior to that of the custom tailor both in materials and workman- 
ship. With the development of the industry, however, the manu- 
facturer has not only improved his product but he has steadily 
striven for higher and higher classes of customers. Some of the best 
designers and mechanics in the business are now in the employ of the 
better-grade cloak and suit manufacturers. The product of some 
of these factories contains materials of as high quality as the market 
affords, and the operatives who make the garments represent skill 
of as high grade as any at the command of the custom tailor. Since 
the differences in quality of material and workmanship have been so 
largely done away with, practically the only things that the custom 
tailor can supply his patron that can not be had from the manufac- 
turer of ready-made garments are a certain exclusiveness and a kind 
of personal service. Even the advantage of exclusiveness is of short 
duration, in many cases, for the enterprising designer readily and 
promptly copies new ideas that give promise of becoming popular. 

This invasion of the field of the medium and high priced garment, 
however, has created a real demand for workers with higher degrees 
of skill, and more of them. The industry faces the possibility of 
reaching the upper limits of development at an early date unless a 
supply of better- trained workers can be assured. Hence, the impor- 
tance of the proposed scheme for apprenticeship and industrial train- 
ing can be readily appreciated. 

That development along the lines suggested is in the interests of the 
workers, as well as of the manufacturers, requires no demonstration. 
Increase in the qualifications referred to means direct and positive 



182 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

increase in. efficiency, and corresponding increase in earning capacity. 
If the industry is to rise to higher levels of artistic service and com- 
mercial success it can only be through suitable recognition of the 
importance of the worker's contribution toward that consummation. 

COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

With due appreciation of the growing need for action, the unions 
and the manufacturers' association, in January, 1914, authorized the 
creation of a commission on industrial education, which should con- 
sider the problem and propose some solution. It was agreed that 
this commission should consist of nine members, three appointed by 
each of the two parties to the protocol, and three appointed by the 
board of arbitration. As a first step the board of arbitration was 
authorized to direct the bureau of statistics, which is responsible for 
this present study, to prepare in definite form proposals looking 
toward the development of a plan for the industrial and supple- 
mentary training of workers and apprentices. The following outline 
of the details of a plan for a part-time and factory school is presented 
in compliance with these instructions. The accompanying chart 
shows the proposed plan of organization and control. 

PROPOSED PART-TIME AND FACTORY SCHOOL. 

Units of Five Weeks. — Inspection of the figures collected in the 
study of wage statistics indicating the seasonal fluctuations in the 
industry shows that there are two periods each year, each several 
weeks in length, during which large numbers of employees are thrown 
out of work. In accordance with the provision of the apprenticeship 
agreement, the basis of the factory school is made two 10-week 
periods, so arranged as to coincide with the periods of highest unem- 
ployment. It is proposed, therefore, to operate a factory school for 
10 weeks, from November 15 to February 1, and 10 weeks, from May 1 
to July 15, in four units of 5 weeks each. 

It is proposed, further, to operate a part-time school for 25 weeks, 
in 5 periods of 5 weeks each. Since the two parts of the plan together 
contemplate 45 weeks of school, there remain 7 weeks of vacation to 
complete the year. From the standpoint of both employers and 
employees the most favorable time to interrupt the school work is at 
the height of the busy season, when teachers and apprentices alike 
are most needed in the productive work of the factories. The seven 
weeks of vacation are divided, therefore, and three weeks are placed 
at the height of the spring season, and four weeks at the height of the 
fall season. The accompanying chart shows the program for the 
year by weeks and units, and the relation to seasonal fluctuations on 



PLAN of ORGANIZATION and CONTROL for INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

By JOINT AGREEMENT 

id of Affiliated Local Unions of International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union 
and Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Manufacturers' Protective Association 
GREATER NEW YORK 




Teachers 



Industrial 
Subjects 
Related 
Subjects 
General 
Subjects 



Special 
Teachers 

and 
Lecturers 



Foreman 

of 
Factory 
Dept 



Coarse 
of Study 


Industrial 
Subjects 


Related 
Subjects 


General 
Subjects 


Units of S Whs 


Processes 
Specified in 
Apprenticeship 
Plan 


Freehand and 
Mech Drawing 
Color Study 
Textiles 


English 
Mathematics 
Bookkeeping 


Dull Seasons 
Nov 15 -Feb 1 
May 1 -Jul IS 


Indus. History 
Indus. Gecg. 
Indus. Hygiene 


Also Drafting 
Grading, Etc 


Sources of 
Materials 


Units Based on 
7 Grades of 
Apprenticeship 


Based on 
Actual Factory 
Productive 
Work 


Use of Modem 
Appliances 

Production and 
Distribution 
Costs 


Trade 
Agreements 
Collective 
Bargaining 


Units Offered at 
Any&ivenTime 

Based on 
Demand and 

Facilities 


Emphasis on 
Educational 
Value of all 
Processes 


Citizenship 


Modern Factory 
Methods 




Each Unit 
Must Include: 
Industrial, 
Related, 
and General 
Subjects 









of Study 



Unit of 25 WKs 



Adjusted 
to Seasons 



Units Based on 
7 Grades of 
Apprenticeship 



Units Offered at 
Any GivenTime 
Based on 
Demand and 
Facilities 



Each Unit. 
Must Include: 

Related 
2nd General 

Subjects 



See Analysis 

under 
Factory School 



Regulation 


Materials 


Product 


Mutual' 
Agreement 
on Rules 
Governing 
Operation of 
Factory *nd 
Disposition 
of Product 


Saw Matjrials 
Purchased 
in Market 


Sold at 
Market 
Value, 


or Furnished 
by Members 
of Assn on 
Conditions 
Specified 


or Absorbed 
By Members 
of Assn on 
Conditions 
Specified 







Recommendation 
of Graduates 

for 
Certification 



Receipts 



Classification 



Certification 



Follow-Up Plar 
To Remove 
Causes of 
Complaint 



Individual 
Advancement 
in the 
Industry 



Promotion 
of Interests 
of Workers 



401(10° — Bull. 147 — 16. (To face paste 1S2.1 



PLAN FOR EDUCATION OF WORKERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 183 



the basis of pay-roll data secured from 60 shops for the year August, 
1912, to July, 1913. 

School Day. — The program of the factory school provides for 6 
hours' work daily from Mondays to Fridays, with morning sessions 
from 9 to 12, and afternoon sessions from 1 to 4, and morning sessions 
on Saturdays from 9 to 12. The plan of the part-time school proposes 
that each apprentice shall go to school for one session of 3 hours each 
week for a period of 25 weeks. • 

Attendance. — The apprentices who attend the factory school 
may or may not be the same ones who attend the part-time school. 
This is a matter to be determined, with others, when the final details 
are settled. The work of the factory school could be designed for 
apprentices most in need of training, while those who are more pro- 
ficient could be provided for by the part-time units. In any event, 
attendance upon classes, and satisfactory completion of the work 
assigned, should count as f ulfilhnent of a definitely recognized portion 
of apprenticeship service. 

Payment while in School.— The question of the payment of 
apprentices for a part or all of the time spent in school attendance 
should be taken up for settlement by the parties to the agreement. 

FACTORY SCHOOL. 

Course of Study. — It is proposed that the apprentice shall devote 
one-half of his school time to productive shopwork and the necessary 
instruction in industrial processes connected therewith, one-fourth to 
related subjects, and one-fourth to general subjects. The work is to 
be arranged in units of 5 weeks, based on the 7 grades of apprentice- 
ship provided for. The units to be offered at any given time will 
naturally depend upon the grades of apprenticeship represented by 
those applying for instruction, and upon the facilities afforded by the 
school organization. Each unit of the course of study must include 
work in: (1) Industrial subjects; (2) Related subjects; (3) Gen- 
eral subjects. The general content of the fields included under these 
heads is indicated in the following paragraphs: 

Program. — The program is arranged so that two sections of 
apprentices work in the factory one-half of each day throughout the 
week, while two other sections devote the other half days throughout 
the week to related subjects and general subjects. This arrangement 
may continue through the 5 weeks, or it may be reversed on alternate 
weeks. (See " Teachers' schedules," p. 189.) 

Industrial Subjects. — These include instruction that deals with 
und is directly based upon the processes specified in the apprentice- 
ship plan. It should include also instruction in the drafting and 
grading of patterns, as well as other processes not specifically men- 
tioned, but essential to the development of the skilled workman. 



184 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

For the conduct of this part of the instruction the school is to be 
organized as a factory for actual productive work. Arrangements 
will be made by which members of the association will send in work 
to be done which will furnish the apprentices with practical problems 
such as arise in the regular course of business. While the school 
shop work is to be organized on a factory basis, and every effort made 
to secure the highest possible standards of workmanship and effi- 
ciency, nevertheless the emphasis must be always on the educational 
value of the process and the advancement of the apprentice. 

The productive work of the school factory is to be under the direc- 
tion of a shop foreman, while a teacher of industrial subjects will be 
in charge of the instruction, and both will be responsible to the 
director. It will be necessary to select the shop foreman and the 
teacher of industrial subjects with a view to their ability to work 
together in sympathetic and hearty cooperation, on the basis of 
clearly defined principles worked out in conference with the director. 

Related Subjects. — By these are meant subjects of study di- 
rectly related to the industrial processes carried on in the factory. 
The work hi pattern drafting and grading should have a thorough 
grounding in the elements of freehand and mechanical drawing, and 
through appropriate study of color and textiles provision should be 
made for improvements in taste and esthetic appreciation, the ne- 
cessity for which has already been pointed out. The sources of the 
important materials used in the industry should be made the subject 
of careful study. Attention should be given to the possibility of 
raising the standards of efficiency by the use of modern factory 
appliances and inventions, by a scientific study of production and 
distribution costs, and by the improvement of factory methods. 

General Subjects. — The plan here outlined does not contem- 
plate a training confined to wage-earning capacity exclusively. The 
course of study has been projected under the influence of the convic- 
tion that the worker is first of all a man and a citizen, and as such 
has certain duties, obligations, and privileges of which he must be 
made aware. The importance of industrial efficiency is not neg- 
lected nor minimized, but it is considered in its relation to the whole 
life of the individual. 

For this reason it is insisted that due regard must be paid to general 
subjects in an educational plan for any industry, in order to insure 
that minimum of intelligent understanding of civic and social, as well 
as industrial conditions and tendencies that an enlightened public 
opinion deems essential to the proper development of our American 
civilization. In order to provide for this supplementary training 
it is proposed that one-fourth of the school time shall be devoted to 
the thoughtful and carefully directed consideration of pertinent topics 
selected from the fields of industrial history, industrial geography, 



ADJUSTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL TO SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS 
CLOAK, SUIT, AND SKIRT INDUSTRY 
GREATER NEW YORK 



Fluctuat 
of Paysou. 




Month 


FEB 


MCH 


APRIL 


MAY 


JUNE 


JULY 


AUG 


SEPT 


OCT 


NOV 


DEC 


JAN 


1 1 1 1 


1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 


1 1 1 1 


i 1 ! 


MM 


M M M 1 


1 1 1 


MM 


M M M 1 




I I I I I I I 



491G9°— Bull. 147—15. (To face page 184.) 



PLAN FOR EDUCATION OF WORKERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 185 



and industrial and personal hygiene. For many of the workers this 
kind of study must be preceded, or at least accompanied, by a certain 
amount of drill in the English language, and a grounding in the ele- 
ments of mathematics and bookkeeping. The exercises in language 
work and the problems in mathematics and bookkeeping should be 
such as naturally arise in the industry, at least until sufficient interest 
has been aroused to carry the study further. 

The importance of the labor organization in this industry, and the 
fact that the stability of the industry rests in large measure upon the 
successful direction of the growing tendency to pool interests on 
both sides, emphasize the necessity for an understanding of the 
principles of trade agreements and collective bargaining. These 
topics should have an important place in the curriculum of the indus- 
trial school. 

Finally, those topics that deal with social and political relation- 
ships, and that have to do with appreciation of the spirit and the 
ideals of American democracy, for convenience comprehended under 
the inclusive term " citizenship," represent a phase of education that 
is of special significance in an industry whose workers are to such a 
large extent foreign born. Not only the future of this industry but 
the future of the commonwealth is threatened if suitable provision 
be not made for assisting these thousands of newcomers to adjust 
themselves to American conditions. 

PART-TIME SCHOOL. 

Course of Study. — Since the plan provides that the apprentice 
shall spend three hours weekly in school while employed the remain- 
der of the week in a factory, it is not necessary to provide for pro- 
ductive shopwork in the part-time school. One-half of the time is 
to be devoted to subjects directly related to the factory work, and 
one-half to general subjects, the general character of these groups 
of subjects being the same as already described under the factory 
school. The plan proposes 25 weeks of part-time schooling per year 
for each apprentice enrolled, but it can be modified quite readily so 
as to provide a shorter school year or term. 

Program. — The time is to be divided between related subjects and 
general subjects by dividing each three-hour period into two parts, 
or by assigning the groups of subjects to alternate weeks. 

Regulation of Factory Department. — It will be necessary for 
the commission, or for the parties to the agreement in some other 
way, to reach mutual agreement on rules and regulations governing 
the operation of the factory department of the school and the dispo- 
sition of the product. It shoidd be arranged that raw materials 
needed shall be purchased in the market, or furnished by members 
of the association on conditions specified. In the same manner, 



186 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 

the product should be sold at market value, or absorbed by members 
of the association on conditions specified. 

Recommendation of Graduates. — It should be the duty of the 
director of the school to send to the joint commission on industrial 
education from time to time the names of apprentices who have 
successfully completed the various portions of the course of study as 
outlined, with the recommendation that they be duly examined for 
certification to the next higher grade. 

CERTIFICATION OF APPRENTICES. 

Certificates of apprenticeship should be issued by the joint com- 
mission on industrial education, through its secretary, rather than 
by the school in order to invest them with somewhat more of dig- 
nity and importance. These documents should be recognized as 
important and valuable credentials, intrinsically worth striving for. 
The board, therefore, should have direct charge of the examining 
of apprentices, classifying them into grades, and issuing apprentice- 
ship certificates. 

The secretary of the board should also be charged with devising a 
follow-up plan, for keeping track of apprentices in the factories, and 
discovering and removing causes of complaints. It should be his 
duty to assist the individual apprentice in every way possible in his 
efforts toward advancement in the industry, and to promote the inter- 
ests of the worker by advice and suggestion, not only to the worker 
but to the employer and to the director of the school. 

financial organization. 

Receipts. — The financial organization of the school is shown in 
outline in the accompanying diagram. The sources of income may be 
classified as follows: 

1. It is proposed to request the board of education of the city of 
New York to detail certain teachers to assist in the school. The sal- 
aries of such teachers will represent a contribution from this source. 

2. Assessments paid by apprentices and employers. 

3. It is anticipated that occasions will arise when quantities of 
material in the form of remnants or otherwise may be available for 
the use of the school at a considerable reduction from their original 
value. The difference between the actual value of the goods and the 
amount paid will constitute a contribution from this source. 

4. Whatever is realized from the disposition of the product of the 
factory department will be credited on the books of the school. 

5. Miscellaneous receipts and contributions. 

6. Contributions from the unions and the manufacturers' associa- 
tion. Eacli of the two parties to the agreement is to bear one-half 
of the net operating expense. 



FINANCIAL ORGANIZATION 
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL in the CLOAK, SUIT, and SKIRT INDUSTRY 
GREATER NEW YORK 



Salaries 
of Certain 
Teachers 

Detailed 
by 

Board of 
Education 



Assess 


ments 


Paid by 


Apprentices 




Empl< 


>yers 







Materials 
Furnished 
By Parties to 
Agreement 



Disposition 
of 
Product 



Miscellaneous 

Receipts and 
Contributions 



Contributions 
from Unions 
and Assn 



Each 'A of Net 
Operating 
Expenses 




RECEIPTS 
By Secretary of Board and 
Transmitted to Treasurer 



EXPENDITURES 
By Treas of Board 
on Vouchers Drawn by Secy 
Countersigned by Chairman 




Maintenance 



Clerical Force 
Records, Filing 
Supplies 

iscellaneous 



PLAN" FOB EDUCATION OF WORKERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 187 

Expenditures. — The expenditures will be limited to those neces- 
sary for the rental of space, equipment, and operation of the school, 
and the equipment and maintenance of the office of the board. The 
receipts will pass to the secretary and will be transmitted by him 
to the treasurer. Expenditures will be made by the treasurer on 
vouchers drawn by the secretary and countersigned by the chairman 
of the board. 

Budget. — The following budget represents an estimate of the 
necessary minimum of expenditures for the first year. After the first 
year the item of $1,250 for equipment will be ehminated. It is im- 
possible to offer anything better than a guess as to the amount that 
might be realized from the disposition of the product or from miscel- 
laneous contributions. 

BUDGET FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Salaries: 

Director 

Shop foreman, 20 weeks, at $40 

Teacher of industrial subjects, 20 weeks 

Teacher of related subjects, 45 weeks 

Teacher of general subjects, 45 weeks 

Secretary to the director, 52 weeks, at $25 

Stenographer and clerk, 52 weeks, at $20 

Rental: 

Space for factory school, fully equipped, 20 weeks, at $25. . . . 
Space for part-time school, 25 weeks, at $25. 

Equipment: 

For part-time school — 

Teachers' desks and chairs 

Tables for writing and study, for 30. . . . 

Chairs, for 30 

Tables for drafting, for 15 

Drafting boards, instruments, etc 

Textbooks, lesson sheets 

Blackboards 

Supplies 

For office — 

Desks, chairs 

Typewriter 

Mimeograph, for duplicating 

Filing cabinets 

Printing: 

Office forms 

Record card filing forms 

Lesson sheets 

Examination questions 

Certificates 

Incidentals 



$4, 500 
800 
800 
1, 800 
1, 800 
1,300 
1,040 



$12, 040 



500 
625 



1,125 



750 



500 

1, 250 



300 



285 



585 



15, 000 



188 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



CAPACITY OF SCHOOL. 

Factory School. — The classes should be limited in size to 15 
apprentices to each teacher. With the instructional staff as pro- 
posed, the program will permit 60 apprentices to be accommodated 
at one time. The teacher of related subjects and the teacher of 
general subjects will each have a section of 15 apprentices, while the 
shop foreman and the teacher of industrial subjects will together 
have charge of a double section of 30. By an exchange of sections 
between morning and afternoon sessions each section will be given 
the three lines of work required. 

If each section of apprentices is limited to 5 weeks of instruction, 
the 20 weeks of factory school will provide accommodations for four 
sections of 60 each, or 240 apprentices during the year. Of these, it is 
suggested that 120 be apprentice cutters and 120 apprentice pressers. 

If the four units of instruction suggested are planned in such a way 
as to cover the ground of the first six grades of the apprenticeship 
plan outlined on page 174, and one of these units offered to the appren- 
tice in each of the first four years of his apprenticeship, it would mean 
that the factory school, when once in full operation, would have a 
capacity of 30 graduate apprentice cutters and 30 graduate apprentice 
pressers each year. 

Part-time School. — The instructional staff for the part-time school 
includes only the teacher of related subjects and the teacher of general 
subjects, in addition to the director. Since eacli apprentice is to receive 
only one-half day (three hours) of instruction, each teacher can 
accommodate two sections of 15 each daily, or, together, 60 per day. 
In a week of 5^ days, therefore, provision is made for 330 apprentices. 
Of these, it is suggested that 150 be apprentice cutters, 150 apprentice 
pressers, and that special sections be provided for 30 girls employed 
as finishers, cleaners, basters, etc. 

If the term of 25 weeks be considered as a unit, and one such unit 
be offered for each of the 5 years of the apprenticeship, the part-time 
school, when in full operation, will have a capacity of 30 graduate 
apprentice cutters and 30 graduate apprentice pressers each year. 

The following summary shows the number of hours of instructio 
provided in the proposed units. 

SUMMARY OF HOURS OF INSTRUCTION. 



Subjects. 


Hours of instruction in— 


5 weeks' 
course in fac- 
tory school. 


25 weeks' 
course in 
part-time 
school. 


Industrial subjects 


82* 
41J 


(Work in 
factory.) 

37* 

37* 


Related subjects 

General subjects 





PLAN FOR EDUCATION OF WORKERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 189 



Whether the amount of time allowed is enough to accomplish all 
that may be desired, or whether the two parts of the plan (the factory 
school and the part-time school) can be made of substantially equal 
value to apprentices, are questions that can be answered satisfactorily 
only after a careful trial has been made and the results studied. It 
may be found desirable, for example, to employ the teacher of 
industrial subjects during the 25 weeks of the part-time school, and 
to arrange for him a schedule of visits to the factories where appren- 
tices are employed, in order to systematize the instruction in the 
industrial processes. 

Apprenticeship Plan for Pressers. — In explanation, it should 
be said at this point that the plan contemplates the formulation of an 
apprenticeship system for pressers correlative to that outlined on 
pages 174 to 176 for cutters. 

The following schedule indicate the arrangement of hours of 
instruction and the classes assigned to each teacher for the factory 
school and the part-time school, respectively. Each section, A, B, 
C, D, etc., is understood to consist of not more than 15 apprentices. 

TEACHERS' SCHEDULES. 
FACTORY SCHOOL. 



Hours. 



Staff. 



9tol2... 



1 to 4. 



(Shop foreman 
Teacher of industrial subjects., 
Teacher of related subjects 
Teacher of general subjects 

!Shop foreman 
Teacher of industrial subjects. , 
Teacher of related subjects 
Teacher of general subjects 



Monday. 



Tuesday 



Wednes- 
day. 



Thurs- 
day. 



Friday. 



Satur- 
day. 



PART-TIME SCHOOL. 



9 to 12. 
1 to 4.. 



(Teacher of related subjects. 
\Teacher of general subjects. 
(Teacher of related subjects. 
\Teacher of general subjects. 



A 


E 


I 


M 


Q 


B 


F 


J 


N 


R 


C 


G 


K 





S 


D 


H 


L 


P 


T 



The following table shows the numbers of apprentices, by grades, 
for which accommodations will be provided when the industrial 
school is in full operation. 

NUMBERS OF APPRENTICES PROVIDED FOR AND GRADES REPRESENTED. 



Grades. 


Factory school. 


Part-time school. 


Cutters. 


Pressers. 


Cutters. 


Pressers. 


Special. 


1,2,3 


45 
30 
15 
15 
15 


45 
30 
15 
15 
15 


60 
45 
15 
15 
15 


60 
45 
15 
15 
15 




4 




5 




6 




7 




Special class for finishers, etc. (girls) . . . 


30 


Total 










120 


120 


150 


150 


30 





190 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. 



PER CAPITA COSTS. 

Without taking into account the probable reduction in the cost of 
running the industrial school through the various sources of income 
already enumerated, a budget of $15,000 for 45 weeks gives a weekly 
estimated expense of $333.33. Since the factory school accommo- 
dates 60 apprentices, the weekly cost per apprentice is $5.55; and for 
the unit of 5 weeks the cost for instruction is $27.75 for each appren- 
tice enrolled. 

The part-time school accommodates 330 apprentices, consequently 
the weekly cost per apprentice is $1.01; and since each apprentice is 
to receive 25 weeks of instruction, the cost is $25.25 for each appren- 
tice enrolled. 

Assessments. — The apprenticeship agreement proposes that each 
employer shall pay into the treasury of the commission on industrial 
education a weekly assessment for each apprentice during the period of 
instruction in the industrial school and that each apprentice shall pay 
a weekly assessment while employed in any factory. Both the em- 
ployer and the apprentice will be directly benefited by the work of the 
industrial school and therefore should contribute something toward 
its maintenance. Each is more likely to assume an attitude of interest 
and helpful cooperation toward an enterprise to the support of which 
he is making some financial contribution, however small. 

RELATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL TO THE PROTOCOL. 

The accompanying diagram shows in outline the relation of the pro- 
posed industrial school and the joint commission on industrial educa- 
tion to the protocol, which was signed September 2, 1910. The par- 
ties to the agreement are: The joint board of affiliated local unions 
of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, and the Cloak, 
Suit, and Skirt Manufacturers' Protective Association. 

Under the terms of the protocol there have been set up two agencies 
dealing with specific classes of industrial problems : 

1. The joint board of sanitary control, consisting of "two nomi- 
nees of the manufacturers, two nominees of the unions, and three who 
are to represent the public." The organization of the board includes 
a director, an assistant medical examiner, a staff of inspectors, and 
clerks. 

2. The board of arbitration, consisting of "one nominee of the manu- 
facturers, one nominee of the unions, and one representative of the 
public." The organization provides for a secretary, a board of griev- 
ances, clerks of the board of grievances, and deputy clerks. 



PLAN FOR EDUCATION OF WORKERS IN CLOAK INDUSTRY. 191 

It is now proposed to adopt an amendment to the protocol which 
shall provide for the establishment of a third agency correlative with 
the ones just mentioned : 

3. The joint commission on industrial education, consisting of three 
nominees of the manufacturers, three nominees of the unions, and 
three representatives of the public, at least one of whom shall be a 
member of the board of education of Greater New York and one an 
expert in industrial education. The organization of the commission 
provides for a secretary, to have charge of finance and the certification 
of apprentices, and a director, who is to be responsible for the manage- 
ment of the industrial school and the factory department. 



« 



ANALYSIS OF TRADE AGREEMENT 

CLOAK, SUIT, AND SKIRT INDUSTRY 
GREATER NEW YORK 



Joint Board of Affiliated Local Unions 
oftme International 
Ladies' Garment Workers' Union 



Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Manufacturers' 
Protective Association 




Secretary 



Asst Medical Examine 



Director 







School Or 


ganization 



Board of Grievances 



Deputy Clerks 



VITA. 



William T. Bawdex. — Born in Oberlin, Ohio. Graduated from Den- 
ison University, Granville, Ohio, with Degree of A. B., in June, 1896. 
Tn 1897-98 was a special student in the Mechanics Institute, Eochester, 
N". Y., in the course for teachers and supervisors of manual training for 
secondary schools. In 1902-03 studied at Teachers College, Columbia 
University, New York, X. Y., receiving the Diploma in Manual Training 
for Elementary Schools and the Degree of B. S. From 1912 to 1914 
graduate student at Teachers College, with Major in Administration of 
Industrial Education and Minor in Social Economy. Holder of Scholar- 
ship, Denison University, 1892-96, and of Graduate Research Scholar- 
ship, Teachers College, 1913-14. In 1896-97, instructor in common 
branches, Cedar Valley Seminary. Osage, Towa : from March to August, 
1898, instructor in wood-turning and pattern-making, New York State 
Reformatory, Elmira, X. Y. ; from 1898 to 1902. instructor in Manual 
Training Department, Public Schools, Buffalo, X. Y. ; from 1903 to 
1910, Director of Manual Training Department, Illinois State Xormal 
University, Normal, 111.; from 1910 to 1912, Assistant Dean of the Col- 
lege of Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Since July, 
1909, Managing Editor of The Manual Training Magazine, and since 
July, 1911, Managing Editor of Vocational Education, published by 
The Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111. Assisted in the industrial educa- 
tion survey, Bridgeport, Conn., 1913. Assisted in the investigation into 
the Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Industry of Xew York City, conducted by the 
Board of Arbitration, 1913-14. Assisted in the industrial education sur- 
vey, Richmond, Ya., 1914. Since August, 1914, specialist in industrial 
education. U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 



